|
|
|
G. KOUTHON, F. MAZAUD, & C. BOTHE
Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations (FAO),
Agro-Industries and Post Harvest Management Service (AGSI), Rome, Italy
1. |
Mandate of
the AGSI (Agro-Industries and Post Harvest Management Service) |
Focusing on the Post-Harvest this FAO-Service promotes reduction of post harvest losses, integrated value added transformation technologies and their related accounting and administrative support systems. The range of activities normally involves a wide span of on farm and off farm operations including post-harvest technology, transformation, storage, packaging, finished-product marketing, distribution, research, in plant quality assurance and basic management skills. Far too often the problems of feeding the world's hungry is thought of in terms of producing enough food - the more pressing problems of getting the food from the farm where it is harvested to the table when it is consumed is frequently not given the attention it deserves. As a result, too little attention is given to the constraint in food handling, processing, preservation and distribution.
Post production operations of agricultural products include a wide range of functions which are required to supply good quality food, to reduce transaction costs and to raise domestic welfare. These functions are covered in the post-production chain of activities.
The post-harvest subsector is currently undergoing rapid change in most developing countries. Structural adjustment programmes have led most governments to terminate the activities of state agencies in marketing, handling, input supply and processing of agricultural products. The private sector has been encouraged to fill the gap left by the state agencies. The deterioration of infrastructure has led to the concentration of agricultural development in selected locations, at the expense of marginal areas.
Post-harvesting activities are traditionally the domain of women in the developing world. Women are almost exclusively responsible for cleaning, handling, storing, processing and preparing of crops for food (in addition to all their other duties in the household or in the garden).
Notwithstanding the importance of partnership arrangements in the family work traditional division between gender usually puts women and girls at a disadvantage.
With this background activities of the Service consist in:
* |
A multidisciplinary approach to policies and other support measures in the post production sector. |
* |
The establishment and development of viable, well managed food industries, particularly in rural areas. This includes providing advice on issues such as commercial benefits of local processing such as import substitution, increased export earnings, economic development through rural employment and social development by the creation of a local demand for higher level management and technical services; |
* |
Primary agricultural processing industries and grading/testing laboratories; |
* |
Making better use of under utilised locally available renewable energy sources; |
* |
Providing information on the needs, design, capacity, characteristics and management of post harvest facilities; |
* |
Promoting and undertaking sub-sector reviews of the post production system, with subsequent co-ordination of policy formulation; |
* |
Building awareness of the need for an interdisciplinary approach to post production issues. |
* |
Preparing training materials and organising training courses, with emphasis on this interdisciplinary approach, in post production policy formulation, management and extension, directly and through collaborative efforts including TCDC; |
* |
Promoting awareness and understanding of the role and activities of women in post production and formulating strategies by which these can be assisted. |
2. |
INPhO (Information Network on Post-harvest Operations) |
A Project of the Agro-Industries and Post-Harvest Management Groups, AGSI, FAO
The initial INPhO Project is a collaborative effort of a small group of organisations (FAO, GTZ, CIRAD) working internationally, in the area of agricultural post-production. The circle of participating organisations is expected to be extended once the initial phase is completed.
The Information Network will comprise three principal components:
* |
A comprehensive collection of information dealing with post-production issues organised by the INPhO Secretariat according to the established needs of the Network users; |
* |
Communication/Interactive Services; |
* |
Links with other databases and libraries. |
Users should be guided through the Information Network by carefully constructed menu options and screen display design. Where appropriate, the network should be searchable by keyword. As access to Internet is limited in some parts of the world, it is important that information be downloaded onto diskettes and CD-ROM’s for a wider dissemination. Details concerning the INPhO project are given in the annex.
3. |
FAO Framework for the analysis of the Post-Production Sector |
3.1 |
Introduction |
A prototype methodological framework for the analysis of the post-production sector has recently been developed by the Post-Harvest Management Group (AGSI) of FAO in agreement and collaboration with GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH, German Technical Co-operation). This action was proposed at a previous GASGA (Group for Assistance on Systems relating to Grain After Harvest) meeting. In the past, most attention had been paid to on-farm operations. In response to recent liberalisation and privatisation measures, farmers now have to find new outlets for products they used to sell to government-dominated marketing or multifunctional organisations. As a result, off-farm post-production issues have become critical and the relationship between on-farm and off-farm operations requires careful examination. Linking the system of on-farm activities to other operations in the chain, and then placing that chain in a wider socio-economic and political context, requires a consistently followed logic and a solid analytical method. For these reasons, a prototype methodological framework has been developed.
The framework should serve as a guide to assist in:
* |
the collection, choice and use of relevant information; |
* |
problem identification and prioritising; |
* |
assessment of opportunities for improvement. |
Generally speaking, a framework is a standard format into which specific information is fitted to arrive at an analysis of a development situation. While the post-production framework provides checklists and questionnaires covering the whole post-harvest system from producer to consumer, in each situation the framework is going to be used, only those sections relevant for that particular situation should be used. Care should be taken however, that the logical order of the framework is respected. FAO has decided to test the post-production framework in Zambia, whereas GTZ carried out tests in Kenya and Ghana.
3.2 |
Reasons for Testing the Post-Production Framework in Zambia |
Zambia was selected for the first testing of the framework. Several reasons have led to this decision. One of the main criteria was the presence of a well functioning national post-harvest unit in the country, or a project that could assist in selecting national consultants, main crops to be surveyed as well as areas to focus on. Other criteria were FAO post-harvest projects being executed presently or in the past, as well as the participation of the country in FAO's Special Programme for Food Production for Security (SPFP). This would facilitate the collection of information.
The Marketing Management Assistance Project (GCPS/ZAM/048/NET) is presently operational in Zambia. This project has highlighted some problems in the post-production system, problems which arose as a result of the market liberalisation process taking place. Studies have been done in particular on the need for more and improved on-farm storage facilities, as well as the development of hammermills and their position within the milling sector. Other relevant information includes the results of an FAO project on improvement of on-farm post-harvest handling of maize. Furthermore a TCP project focusing on training of farmers in the construction of improved storage facilities has become operational recently (TCP/ZAM/4555).
A pilot phase plan of operations for the SPFP has been prepared. Two districts have been selected, Kalomo district in the Southern Province, where a maize based farming system is being practised in a drought prone area, and Kaoma district in the Western Province, with a cassava based farming system prevails. A third district in the Northern province may be selected in the high rainfall area. The SPFP for Zambia includes post-production aspects such as the need for better storage facilities at on-farm level for improved varieties. However, it is being felt that the programme could benefit from more systematic information about the post-production system of maize and cassava, so that what has been produced will not get lost through improper post-harvest handling and processing. In addition, improved processing could result in different products and therefore boost production.
Focus of the Post-Production Analysis
In order to make optimum use of the already existing information through the above mentioned FAO activities in Zambia, the post-production systems analysis had focused on maize and cassava. However, other food crops (such as sorghum, millets, soybeans) could also be taken into account, depending on their importance. Analysis was undertaken in the two districts which were selected for the SPFP. These two districts fall within agro-ecological region II (see below). In addition a third district was selected in the north (agro-ecological region III). As crop production is limited in region I, initially no district was selected here. Final selection of districts however took place during the preparatory visit of a Team Leader.
It should be kept in mind that any agricultural study or programme should be implemented under the ASIP programme (Agriculture Sector Investment Programme in Zambia). Furthermore, priority areas for UN support as defined by the government in the context of market liberalisation, emphasis on services to small-holders, expanded opportunities for outlying region, improvement of the status of women, helping farmers deal with natural disasters and emphasising sustainable agriculture were closely reviewed.
Agro-ecological zones in Zambia
Three agro-ecological regions are recognised in Zambia, occupying broad belts aligned roughly East-West across the country:
Region I occupies about 15 percent of the country, in the hot and dry south. It comprises the low-lying Gwembe, Lusemfwa (drought- and flood-prone areas) and Luangwa valleys and the adjoining rocky escarpments. Crop production is severely constrained by poor soils, and a mean annual rainfall of less than 800 mm. Main crops grown in this region are sorghum, millet and cassava.
Region II occupies about 40 percent of the country, in a broad band across the centre. It has a mean annual rainfall of 800-1000 mm. It is subdivided into subregion IIA, which has relatively fertile plateau soils, and subregion IIB which has mainly poor soils on the Kalahari sands and the Zambezi floodplain. The region has a high potential for maize.
Region III occupies about 46 percent of the country, in the north. It has a mean annual rainfall of 1,000-1,500 mm, and strongly leached soils which are mainly under shifting cultivation. Crop production is constrained by low soil fertility because of strong acidity, and inadequate fallow regeneration between successive cultivation periods, and, in many parts, poor communications and long distances to urban markets. Cassava is an important crop in most areas of this region, in addition sorghum, millet, beans and groundnuts are being grown. Potential for maize is limited.
The use of Zambia as a testing ground for the framework
Zambia had been implementing a structural adjustment and reform programmes. Priority in this programme was given to stabilising the economy, followed by emphasis on: (i) public service reform and privatisation (ii) rehabilitation of the country's economic and social infrastructure; and (iii) provision of support to vulnerable groups.
Maize is the main staple food in Zambia. Although it is only one of the many grains and roots staples consumed by the Zambian population, it is overwhelmingly the favoured staple food in urban areas. In rural areas, it is the main staple food in the central, southern and eastern parts of the country.
Although maize production has been encouraged in other parts of the country through a variety of public policy measures during the past six decades, other grains, such as finger millet, pearl millet, sorghum and cassava, are still the dominant staples in the northern, western, and north-western parts of the country.
In recent years there had been a decline in the area and production level of maize, wheat and rice and an increase in area and production for sorghum, millets, soybean and cassava. One of the reasons for this diversification in crops was the market liberalisation process, through which the production cost of maize had gone up.
The Government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ) has launched ASIP in July 1995. It was designed to achieve a significantly greater sense of involvement and ownership by the government and beneficiaries in agricultural development than was the case in the past. The objective of ASIP was to achieve five goals that GRZ has set for the country's agricultural sector, namely:
1. |
to ensure national and regional food security through dependable annual production of adequate supplies of basic foodstuffs at competitive costs and prices; |
2. |
to ensure that the existing agricultural resource base (land, water and air) is maintained and, if possible, improved upon; |
3. |
to generate incomes and employment to the maximum feasible levels in all regions through the full utilisation of local resources and the realisation of domestic and export market potentials; |
4. |
to contribute to sustainable industrial development; |
5. |
to expand the sector's contribution to the national balance of payments significantly by, amongst other things, expanding agricultural exports in line with international comparative advantage. |
The programme was managed entirely by GRZ within the institutional framework of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries (MAFF), without separate subprogram units.
The movement from a centralised to a liberalised, market-driven economy means that, amongst other measures, parastatals will be privatised, agricultural credit subsidies will be removed and some lending institutions be restructured.
The main objectives of the FAO project were:
* |
To test the usefulness of the prototype post-production framework analysis, and provide recommendations for its improvement; |
* |
Assess the post-production system of maize and cassava in three districts, with a view to analysing constraints and opportunities for improvement. |
Its main outputs were:
* |
A policy and strategy document analysing constraints, bottlenecks and opportunities for improvement in the post-production sector for maize and cassava in three districts in Zambia; |
* |
A report with recommendations on how to improve the prototype framework for post-production systems. |
The outcome of this project was reported to be satisfactory. It has therefore provided a confirmation at the field level of the soundness of the Framework. It is planned to publish the retrieved information of all the three framework tests (Zambia, FAO; Ghana and Kenya, GTZ).
Annex
1. |
Elements of the Information Network INPhO |
The requirements of this component are the most straightforward ones. Libraries and other databases dealing with post-harvest issues which are deemed ‘suitable’ by the Secretariat will be listed. A summary of the scope and contents of the resources will be included. Where permitted, Internet links to the listed resources will be provided. Where necessary, ways of accessing useful resources which are not available on the Internet will have to be developed.
2. |
Communication Services |
Within this component, users should be able to ask a question or search through past questions. Questions should be sent to the INPhO Secretariat. From there, the questions will be sent to the appropriate `resource expert’. These experts will be selected from the list developed by the INPhO Secretariat. Users should be prompted to send their questions in directly by e-mail from the Q/A section of the Network or otherwise queries could be sent by fax or by mail. A standard form will be prepared to permit an easy identification of the questioner.
Initially there will be no charge, but it is envisaged that there will eventually be a charge for this service. A mechanism for effecting this will be established.
E-mail Conferences
Lists of planned or ongoing conferences will be provided with summaries and information regarding participation, including registration forms which could be filled and submitted to the designated organiser (this may be the Secretariat or the expert responsible).
Fora
This involves setting up electronic exchange sites whereby users can comment on selected topics or exchange ideas. The network will provide lists of topics for established fora and instructions for accessing them. There should also be one restricted forum for use by institutions participating in INPhO for exchange of ideas and information.
3. |
Post-Production Data and Resources |
‘Post-Production Data and Resources’ represents the main body of the database. It will contain information synthesised from the literature and the experience of the participating organisations following the list of post-production operation provided earlier. It will give up-to-date information of a practical nature to the identified users of the Network. Material will be presented according to carefully constructed formats with respect to completeness and convenience. Links to photographs in the image bank will be provided where appropriate. The structure of the database should be sufficiently flexible to allow the expansion or addition of new components at all times.
Archives
In the archives, users will find bibliographic references and the full text of selected documents.
Bibliographic References
The main database for bibliographic information will be AGRIS, the FAO international bibliographic information system for the agricultural sciences and technology. Users should be able to link directly into the Post-Harvest section of AGRIS. Links to other bibliographic databases will also be facilitated so as to provide thorough coverage of the available literature. It is planned to download the post harvest components of desired databases on CD-ROMs (which would be updated periodically) and within INPhO any or all of these should be available for simultaneous search. Alternatively, a link to the respective organisations would be provided to access their databases. In the latter case, these will be limited to a very small number of the most useful ones, otherwise searching a large number of databases separately would be too inconvenient. When the full document corresponding to any bibliographic reference is available this will be indicated and the link made from that point. The options available most likely depend on the particular databases which are selected for inclusion.
Full Documents
A list of all documents for which the full text or highlights is available on the Internet, will be provided. Users should be able to `click’ on the title to retrieve the desired text. Some of these documents may not be available within INPhO, but on the Internet site of another organisation.
Decision support tools
This component of the Network will provide guidelines, checklists, procedures and methods of calculation useful in analysing, evaluating and assessing post-production systems or various sub-systems therein. Users should be guided by menu options. As the database grows and this section expands, a keyword search might become useful.
Within each sub-component users should find a list of documentation which is accessible from that point. Specific items which can be accessed. These may be sections contained within full documents that have been listed, or else they may be independent entries.
Information will be presented in a number of ways:
* |
Checklists and guidelines - These will be provided as simple text; |
* |
Sample calculations - These will be presented `as is’ but also giving the user the opportunity to use the template to fill in his/her own numbers; |
* |
Simple modelling - We would like to develop tools and procedures which would allow users to easily construct models representing the behaviour of selected sub-systems. This component is still very much in the conceptual stage. It is envisaged that elements of systems will be identified and the relationships among them defined. Users will be prompted to enter their data into the model. The models must be designed in such a way as to make them sufficiently flexible for the widest possible use. Models would be developed to support decisions on such things as: site selection for a particular operation; investment in storage facilities or irrigation. |
Post-production facts
Menu options should guide users through the contents. The sub-components shown here are described separately in greater detail. Initially INPhO will be restricted to coverage of selected cereals, roots and tubers. This will be subsequently expanded, after the initial launching of the Network, to include a much wider range of crops. The elaboration of product profiles will all follow a similar outline. Cassava is used as an example. Only the anticipated links have been mentioned. The system should be sufficiently flexible, however, to allow the inclusion of additional links as required.
Individual product profile
World Trade
Tables of production and trade statistics will be constructed using the raw data available in FAO-Stat. A link to FAO-Stat will also be provided to allow users to collect information according to their specific requirements. These will be discussed with users so that, if necessary, new ways of manipulating the data in FAO-Stat can be discussed. Distribution maps showing the main producing countries should be obtainable, clicking on the map should provide a link to ‘country information’ for the particular country indicated. Utilisation of crops will be discussed in terms of the forms in which the crop is traded and used; and the by-products which have been developed. Statistics, text and appropriate links will be provided. Existing quality standards and guidelines for raw material and derived products will be discussed. Product-specific aspects of quality assurance will be included.
Post-Production Operations
These will be considered individually, with links being provided to other parts of the Network or outside of the Network, as found necessary. For example, when discussing processing, links to various parts of the `resource lists’ component would be useful, or to selected decision support tools. For all operations links will be provided to available training manuals and other documentation.
Losses
This will contain an analysis of the extent of losses, where they occur along the post-production chain and why. Pest damage and control will deal with common pests, symptomology, consequences and accepted control measures. Links to the AGPP database will be provided as well as the other sections of the INPhO Network.
Current Research
A link to the CARIS database automatically specifying cassava, or else this information will be extracted from CARIS and supplemented with any additional information collected by INPhO.
Equipment manufacturers
In support to the Information Network on Post Harvest Operations (INPhO) contact to be established with institutions, companies and Associations which publish databases for their respective commodity groups for use in their publications. The database will include information on raw material description, product processing technologies, list of equipment used in a particular process and sources of supply with name of supplier, address, telephone, fax and e-mail, with information on current price, potential market per type of product, etc. A questionnaire will be prepared and used for data collection. It should be designed for periodical updating. Confidential information will also be collected on personnel operating in various sectors and at various levels in the field of the food industry.
The proposed activities will include:
* |
Information collection to enable the potential user (a Government institution, a private entrepreneur in need for information), both in developed and developing countries to have access to the following data: |
1. |
A check list of steps to be followed during the commercial production of processed agricultural products, starting from the conceptual to the actual implementation stage. |
|
2. |
Consolidation of flowsheets of various unit operations to be implemented in the processing of particular agricultural commodities. |
|
3. |
A list of food processing and laboratory equipment suppliers, world-wide, and of the products which they manufacture, together with up-to-date information on price (advice to be provided on frequency for up-dating price list). Such a list should include the following items: transportation equipment, primary handling and processing equipment, secondary and tertiary level processing equipment, packaging equipment, analytical and quality assurance equipment (both microbiology, biochemistry, instrumental analysis and miscellaneous), information on recommended security measures when building a processing plant for food and other agricultural commodities. As a preliminary exercise the format of the questionnaire to be used will be designed and agreed between the Contractor and AGSI/FAO. |
|
4. |
Product standards and quality requirements, to be completed in co-operation with the Secretariat of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. |
|
5. |
Information (where feasible) on potential market for both local, national and international markets. |
Post-harvest resources
In this section, users will be able to access information necessary for the planning, implementation or maintenance of post-production programmes or projects. These resources will be categorised as explained above. Contact and other pertinent information will be included. Where available, links to existing catalogues will be provided. Pending advice from legal experts, it may be necessary to have restricted access to some sections of the lists. The list of experts shall be entirely limited to use by the Secretariat. Research and development institutions will be categorised according to ‘international’, ‘regional’ and ‘national’ to facilitate linkage with support institutions within the ‘country information’.
Country information
Agricultural Statistics
For each country, standard table(s) will be presented as well as direct links to FAO-Stat. There is a need to discuss alternative options for data manipulation in FAO-Stat.
Projects
A direct link to CARIS restricted to the selected country could be provided. Alternatively, the relevant information could be extracted from CARIS and presented here along with any additional available material. A list of past projects will also be provided along with a brief project profile including outputs.
Post-Harvest Support
Institutions providing support to the post-harvest sector will be accessible through a link to the ‘resource lists’ component.
Post-Production Issues
For each country issues such as gender relations, urbanisation, employment and value-adding activities will be discussed. Specific technical problems facing the post-production sector in each country will also be dealt with.
Institutional Framework
This will be discussed in relation to constraints and strengths within the post-production sector.
Standards
Existing national standards and guidelines will be provided
More on Post-harvest technologies
Training
This will contain information on training opportunities and training institutions. Available training manuals will be listed, and made accessible from this point.
An image bank and the tools for creating training manuals and leaflets will be provided.
Others
In the other sections new technologies and innovations will be discussed in detail including diagrams and charts.
|
|
|
 |