6.1. The English syllabus
6.2. The approach to reading
6.3. The approach to reading in teacher training
6.4. Observation of reading lessons
6.5. Comments on observations
The Zambia Primary Course (ZPC) English course was developed from 1966 to 1973. It was a rather cumbersome course, consisting of separate Teacher Handbooks for Language, Reading and Writing for each term, together with a pupil's Reader for each term. The pupil's Reader consisted of reading texts, with few exercises or activities. (Recent printings have consolidated the 3 pupils' Readers for each year into one volume.) In addition there were 3 or 4 supplementary Readers for each year.
The ZPC English course is currently being replaced by the new Zambia Basic Education Course (ZBEC) for primary English. After piloting, the Grade 1 books were introduced in 1991, and Grade 2 books in 1992. The whole exercise is due to be completed in 1997 when the Grade 7 books will be introduced. The new course consists of only two Teacher's Guides per year, and two or three pupils' books. Both teacher and pupil books in the new course are integrated, dealing with oral work, reading and writing, and are generally felt to be more "communicative".
The amount of time spent on English as from 1991 in Grades 1 to 4 is 4 hrs 30 minutes per week. In Grades 5 to 7 it is 4 hours 40 minutes (previous corresponding figures are 7 hours 30 minutes and 6 hours). However, all subjects apart from Zambian languages and Religious Education are taught through the medium of English, (although there are local variations, and teachers use the mother tongue to varying degrees especially in the lower grades) so that the input of English is in principle considerable.
6.2.1. The principal approach to reading in the old Zambia Primary Course (ZPC) is the "look and say" ("whole word" and "whole sentence)" method. Phonics are introduced in Grade 2, but the phonic approach is given little prominence (see Appendix B for a description of these methods).
During the first term teachers are told to take pupils through "the essential pre-reading stages involving recognition, discrimination and left-to-right eye movements. The children quickly pass on to the reading of sentences, words, and finally to the readers themselves, so that by the end of Grade 1, most children have completed the first four readers of the Zambia Primary Course". (ZPC Teachers Handbook, Grade 1, Term 1.)
The class readers for Grades 1 and 2 are built around the sentence method. "The children are drilled in the story sentence by sentence and children memorise these sentences by heart" (Kapembwa, 1990: 27). The sentences in the readers are structurally graded and overwhelmingly consist of descriptive language eg "The ball is green" "Mulenga is kicking the ball". Such sentences make for rather boring text. They also provide an inadequate model for the type of transactional language which would allow pupils to personalise their utterances.
Beyond Grade 2 the methodology of reading follows much the same pattern, namely a teacher-led discussion of the picture accompanying the text, a list of new words for the text, reading aloud of the text by teacher and pupils (often choral), followed by oral and written comprehension questions. Reading aloud by the teacher is phased out in Grade 4, and pupils read silently. Picture discussion is phased out in grade 5. The texts increase in complexity and size with each grade, but the basic pattern of reading and comprehension questions remains.
6.2.2. In the new Zambia Basic Education Course "the main method used in Grade 1 is the "look-and-say" method, as in the former course, but phonics... is also introduced in a very simple way" (Grade 1, Teacher's Guide A, p 72). The language presented, however, is more varied, and the activities in the Pupil's Book seem more interesting. There is less drilling of sentences, and more attention to reading as a "meaning making" process.
Beyond Grade 1 there are a variety of reading aims specified in the new syllabus in terms of language competence, text types, reading purposes, fluency and personal responses. The general aims, set out in a working draft (Teaching Syllabus: Functional Objectives, mimeo nd: p 7) are that by the end of Grade 7 pupils should be able to:
1. understand the different types of reading material which they are likely to meet both inside and outside school i.e. texts and passages in the Pupils' Books and graded supplementary readers reading materials in real life eg signs, instructions etc reading materials related to other subjects2. have a reading vocabulary of at least 2500-3000 words, including a basic sight vocabulary of names, signs and labels needed by the learner to operate in a modern society and be able to read with understanding a wide variety of narrative, functional and instructional materials
3. read for pleasure and for specific information
4. read at a speed appropriate to their purpose (a speed of at least 100 words a minute is recommended for reading for pleasure by the end of Grade 7)
5. begin to read critically and make judgements on the materials they read
These would appear to be achievable and worthwhile objectives. However, in order to have their full impact they will not only have to be incorporated effectively into the materials, but also reflected to some degree in the Grade 7 examination, which clearly has a powerful washback effect upon teaching. For specific reading objectives for Grade 7 in this draft working syllabus see Appendix M.
6.2.3. An innovation in reading methodology in tune with the importance of reading for meaning is the "Language Experience Approach" outlined in ZBEC Teacher's Guide A Resource Book (pp 99-103). Since this method depends on pupils making up sentences which the teacher then writes down it poses problems for beginners with little English. The solution suggested is that pupils use the mother tongue, and that this should then be translated and written down by the teacher. I am not aware of any Zambian teachers who have used the approach. A similar approach (based on Breakthrough to Literacy, Mackay et al, 1979) has been used for initial reading in indigenous languages in South Africa and Botswana.
Students in teacher training colleges follow a heavy programme (typically forty-five 40 minute periods per week) devoted largely to drilling in the contents and methods of the ZPC Teachers Handbooks. The syllabus for all subjects in the ten teacher training colleges was in force from 1983 until the early 90s. New teacher training syllabuses are currently being introduced along with the new primary school syllabuses. The revised draft of the Primary Teacher Training Colleges English Syllabus (CDC, 1991) was superseded in 1992 by a new syllabus which was, according to college lecturers to be published in mid-1992.
The general objectives of the 1991 syllabus with respect to reading are that students should by the end of the course "be able to explain the methods and conduct effectively the reading activities set out in the ZPC English component and other methods and activities suggested by the colleges" (p 5). It includes general principles whereby students should be able to:
- define the nature and processes of reading
- explain the psychology and physiology of reading
- list the aims and purposes of reading
- interpret and apply the principles of reading readiness
It then goes on to list specific techniques (for the ZPC), then topics in remedial reading and in the testing and evaluation of reading. This is done briefly and generally, the whole occupying less than a page.
In practice, however, the college lecturers who were interviewed (7 in Kitwe, 4 in Chipata) felt that relatively little attention was given to general principles (ie reading processes and background information) in the training courses. The main emphasis was upon the methodology of teaching reading and imparting specific techniques prescribed for the ZPC course. Thus, although the Preface to the new Primary Teacher Training Colleges English Syllabus encourages college lecturers to be flexible, the colleges' emphasis upon rigid curriculum objectives and primary school content means that teachers tend to reproduce in the classrooms what they were drilled in the colleges.
There is a clear danger that teachers prepared in such a way will tend in subsequent teaching not to reflect sufficiently on the effect of their practices. Thus if their techniques for teaching reading are ineffective (as tests results suggest they are for many pupils) teachers will not have been prepared by their training to modify these practices. Likewise, a rigid approach in colleges means that teachers may not have been prepared to be flexible in their response to occasional problems that individual children may face. In brief, "the development of problem-solving skills, essential to the student who is to cope with difficult and diverse classroom conditions, is neglected" (MOE, 1992: Focus on Learning, 10.4).
Inservice training for teachers is said to be sporadic, although there are initiatives under way, such as the establishing of resource centres, which may affect the situation. Transport and accommodation costs are cited as the main obstacles to systematic inservice training.
6.4.1. On the main data collection trip a total of 6 lessons were observed, which together with the 7 observations of the first trip, make a total of 13, distributed as follows:
|
Year |
No of Observations |
||
|
|
(Urban) |
(Rural) |
|
|
1 |
4 |
(3) |
(1) |
|
2 |
3 |
(2) |
(1) |
|
3 |
4 |
(2) |
(2) |
|
4 |
1 |
(1) |
(0) |
|
5 |
1 |
(1) |
(0) |
|
6 |
0 |
(0) |
(0) |
|
7 |
0 |
(0) |
(0) |
These observations were recorded, and a running record kept of pupil and teacher behaviour. The lessons will be broadly characterised here, at the risk of being unfairly selective in what is described. Schools I (rural), U, L and H (urban) are schools which were observed, but where no testing was carried out. It should be noted that untrained teachers are not allowed to teach Grades 1, 5, 6 or 7, which means they are concentrated in years 2, 3 and 4, when children need great help with establishing literacy.
6.4.2. Year 1 (Schools J, T, I and H) Teachers: all teachers in these lessons were trained.
Schools J, T and H were all engaged in pre-reading activities. All 3 classes (42, 36 and 42 pupils present respectively) were lively, with children drawing, and walking around pointing to colours and objects. The teachers gave careful attention to the presentation of meaning, and were responsive to the pupils' difficulties. In all three schools pupils were sitting in groups around tables or desks.
Both the J and H teachers took advantage of this to give different groups different tasks, then moved from group to group giving individual attention. The pace of the lessons seemed well matched to the children's attention span, and they were not overloaded with language. There was some attention to phonics in School H. There was a limited amount of chanting. Most of the children seemed absorbed in the lesson most of the time. These lessons were probably the best I observed during my visits. Schools H and T were visited in May 1992 and were using the new ZBEC material. However, school J (visited in November 1991) was using the old ZPC material and showed how that too could be used in the hands of a competent teacher. However, schools J and H were clearly above average in their material provision. All three teachers also seemed to have a good command of English.
The School I lesson (29 present) seemed less successful. The teacher was using the old ZPC material, but the problems cannot be attributed solely to the material. The teacher spent the first 15 minutes drilling with 6 flashcards and the blackboard. Children repeated in a combination of choral groups, as the teacher moved from words to sentences and back again with no apparent direction. The teacher then wrote the sentences onto the board and a further 5 minutes was spent with the children reading them yet again, in groups or individually. One unfortunate pupil, who had clearly learned the sentences off by heart, was misguided enough to look at the ceiling as he repeated "They are cooking". The teacher issued a rebuke "When you say it you have to look at the words. That is what reading is." Those two sentences typify all that is wrong with this approach to reading.
6.4.3. Year 2 (School J, I and T)
Teachers: School J and T, trained, I untrained.
Lessons in schools J and I (47 and 33 present respectively) followed much the same pattern. Words were written on the board and the teacher read them aloud. The class, and various individuals repeated them. The words were then further practised using flashcards. They were then used in sentences which were written on the board, and the children copied them. There was no attention to presenting or to checking on the pupils' understanding of the meaning of what was said or written. The school I pupils finished their writing early and the teacher took out the flashcards again and spent the last five minutes in repeating much the same as he had done earlier in the lesson.
The class T teacher (37 present) gave a motivating presentation of meaning using objects in a bag, and also varied the pace and activities throughout the lesson. Pupils read from flashcards, from the board, did a gapped reading exercise and also practised handwriting.
6.4.4. Year 3 (School J, I (twice) and U)
Teachers: all trained
All 4 of these lessons followed the pattern that is established for the reading class in much of ZPC, namely explaining new words or discussing a picture, followed by reading and answering questions. The problem is, as in these classes, that the explaining of words can degenerate into merely repeating words, while the discussion becomes a question and answer session where the teacher addresses the best pupils or answers the questions him/herself. The reading is largely repetitious chanting. Thus in School I (May 1992) a class of 45 spent the entire lesson on a text about hippos and crocodiles, but at the end of the lesson only 5 pupils seemed to know what a hippo was (The text for this lesson appears in Appendix G, and the transcript of the lesson in Appendix H.) School J had 46 present, and School I (Nov 1991) had 25.
An illustrative episode occurred in School U (with 73 present, by far the largest class observed) where the teacher, suddenly called a halt to the choral reading from the books, and instructed the children "Now read silently!" They stared at her seemingly at a loss. She shouted at them "Read silently! Don't look at me!" Still they could not take their eyes off her, and the more she shouted, the more transfixed they became. The situation was only resolved when she decided to give out the work cards, at which point they naturally began to read silently.
6.4.5. Year 4 (School I)
Teacher: trained
After brief repetition of new words, this class of 33 repeated in chorus and individually a text that had been written on the board. Oral questions then followed which the teacher answered himself for the most part. Only 3 pupils volunteered answers. Despite the fact that the pupils seemed to have problems in answering questions about the small section of the story which was written on the board, the teacher continued by reading twice from the book (which only he had) the whole story (see Appendix G for the text written on the board). The teacher then asked children questions on his oral reading which, predictably, they were entirely unable to answer. During the reading only some 6 pupils appeared to be attending to the teacher. This lesson was little more than a listening test from which pupils appeared to have little opportunity of learning.
Year 5 (School L)
Teacher: trained
The fifth year class in School L had 29 pupils present. The lesson was very much in the traditional mould, but executed by a teacher with a concern for the pupils' problems, and with the ability to help them overcome those problems. It began with a series of questions about the picture. Pupils were nominated to answer. If they could not do so the question was rephrased more simply, and if necessary the pupil was helped to formulate an answer. The pupils then went on to read the text, first following as the teacher read, then reading silently by themselves. Further questions were asked including a number which did not appear in the book, and also "Why?" questions, which had been noticeable by their absence in most other lessons. Pupils who appeared to be confused (as one was by the difference between "knew" and "know") received clear explanation and exemplification. Pupils were finally asked to write the answers to the questions in their books; while they did so the teacher circulated among them giving individual attention. It was not an exciting lesson, but with a sense of purpose, and delivered by a teacher who was aware of her pupils.
This was a group of "mixed ability" teachers. Although the most skillful were trained, there were also some trained teachers who did not seem particularly skillful. Those teaching in the Year 1 classes were competent and seemed to have an interest in their work. Many of the other lessons, however, were characterised by the teacher going through the motions prescribed in the Teacher's Guide but without any apparent understanding of the purpose. A large number of pupils appear to flounder through lessons in a miasma of incomprehension. One has the impression that they expect to be mystified by the educational experience.
The greatest single step forward for the teaching of reading in English in Zambia would be for the teachers to realise that reading does not simply consist of saying words while looking at them, but that it is concerned primarily with apprehending meaning. Ensuring that pupils understand sufficient language to make sense of what they are reading is crucial, and so is having a range of techniques to check on understanding. The reading lesson has for many teachers become an occasion for little more than "reading aloud" without understanding.
I would not condemn reading aloud out of hand. There may be roles for it in the early stages, possibly as far as Grade 3, and in certain cases beyond. However, teachers need to ask why it is being done on each occasion. Purposes put forward by those in favour of reading aloud include:
(a) for individual reading aloud:(i) to check that the individual is able to decode
(ii) to give the individual practice in decoding(b) for individual and group reading aloud:
(iii) to practice pronunciation
(iv) to reinforce grammatical patterns
(v) to reinforce recognition of written words(c) for group reading aloud
(vi) to enable the individual to carry out (ii) to (v) without being the focus of the teacher's attention(vii) to carry out (ii) to (v) more economically
(viii) to provide a variety of activities in the classroom
The only purpose where reading aloud is crucial is (i). In all other cases there are ways other than reading aloud of achieving the same object. Reading aloud may have a role in these other functions, but should not be the exclusive means used. Furthermore, whatever the purpose of reading aloud, pupils should always understand what they are saying. A synchronised reading performance by a class is no guarantee of understanding or of learning. At its worse excessive choral repetition is a "reading like" activity rather than reading itself; the children say appropriate words from memory - the same words as they would have said if they had really been able to read - but for many pupils this performance masks a lack of real competence. Reading aloud should be kept within limits and used for clear purposes, rather than merely a time filling device.
However, the main point to be made is that irrespective of the degree of reading aloud in a class, attention to meaning and understanding is essential. It is to be hoped that the new ZBEC materials will help to reintegrate reading and understanding in the many classrooms in Zambia where it is sorely needed.
