STORAGE METHODS
VOLUME III OF
SMALL FARM GRAIN STORAGE
BY
CARL LINDBLAD, PEACE CORPS
AND
LAUREL DRUBEN, VITA
ACTION/PEACE CORPS
VOLUNTEERS IN TECHNICAL
PROGRAM & TRAINING JOURNAL
ASSISTANCE
MANUAL SERIES
NUMBER 2 VITA
PUBLICATIONS
MANUAL
SERIES NUMBER 35E
FIRST PRINTING SEPTEMBER 1976
SECOND PRINTING,
IN
THREE VOLUMES JULY 1977
THIRD PRINTING JULY 1980
VITA
1600 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 500
Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA
Tel: 703/276-1900 . Fax:
703./243-1865
Internet: pr-info@vita.org
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY
The Purpose of the Manual
The People Who Prepared This Manual
The Sponsoring Organizations
How To Use This Manual
Introduction
Feedback
Storage Principles
Finding a Good Storage Place & Illustrations
Cleaning and Repairing Your Storage Place &
Illustrations
Storing Grain in Basket Granaries
Instruction Sheet for Storing Grain in Baskets
Storing Grain in Sacks
Mixing Grain and Insecticides for Sack and Small-Container
Storage
Treating Stacks of Bagged Grain -- Recommended Insecticides
and Dosages
Storing Grain in Sacks:
Summary
Airtight Storage
Storing in Gourds and Baskets
Storing Grain in Underground Pits
Storing Grain in Plastic Sacks, and Illustrations
Storing Grain in Metal Drums
Storing Grain in Metal Bins
Sheet Metal Silo
Fumigation of Small Quantities of Stored Grain:
in Plastic Bags
under Plastic Sheets
and in Small Metal Containers or Silos
Storing in Earthen Structures
The Indian Pusa Bin
Improved Mudblock Silo
How to Use Your Mudblock Silo
Ferrocement for Grain Storage
An Overview of Grain Storage Uses for Ferrocement:
Thai Ferrocement Silo (Thailo)
Ferrocement-lined Underground Pits
and Other Ferrocement Grain Structures
Storing Grain in Cement/Concrete Structures
Brick Grain Storage Silo
The 4.5 Ton Cement Stave Silo
Instructions for Use of the Cement Stave Silo
Concrete Block Square Silos for Cooperative Storage
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONVERSION TABLES
PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL
Small Farm Grain Storage is a set of how-to manuals.
Together these
volumes provide a comprehensive overview of storage problems
and
considerations as they relate to the small farmer.
The authors
recommend the volumes be purchased as a set because the
material forms
an excellent and complete working and teaching tool for
development
workers in the field.
This grain storage information can be adapted
easily to meet on-the-job needs; it has already been used as
the
basis for a grain storage workshop and seminar in East
Africa.
This set of publications retains the purpose of the original
volume:
to bring together and to communicate effectively to field
personnel
1) the basic principles of grain storage and 2) the
practical solutions
currently being used and tested around the world to combat
grain storage problems.
Only the format has been changed to:
*
reduce printing and postage costs.
*
permit updating and revising one volume at a
time.
*
provide smaller books that are easier to
hold and use
than the large,
single volume.
*
make portions of the information available
to the user
who is especially
interested in only one or another of
the major aspects
of small farm grain storage.
Of course, it is impossible to cover all storage situations in
this
manual. But farmers
who understand the basic, unchanging principles
of drying and storing grain are better able to adapt ideas,
suggestions,
and technologies from other parts of the world to their own
needs.
This material was prepared for use by those who work to
facilitate
such understanding.
OVERVIEW OF THE MANUAL
Volume I, "Preparing Grain for Storage," discusses
grain storage
problems as they are faced by small-scale farmers.
This volume
contains explanations of the structure of grain, the
relationship
between grain and moisture, the need for proper drying.
One large
section contains detailed, fully illustrated plans for
constructing
a variety of small-scale grain dryers.
Volume II, "Enemies of Stored Grain," is an
in-depth study of two
major enemies:
insects and rodents. Each is
discussed in detail
with guidelines for 1) defining the size of the problem and
2) protecting
grain by both chemical and non-chemical means.
This volume
includes dose and use information for a variety of pesticides,
as well
as suggestions for preparing materials to be used in
audio-visual
presentations.
Volume III, "Storage Methods," contains a survey
of storage facilities
from the most traditional basket-type granary to metal bins
and cement
silos. The emphasis
in this volume is on improving existing facilities;
for example, there are detailed construction procedures for
an
improved mud silo.
Storage in underground pits and sacks also is
discussed. There are
guidelines for using insecticides in storage
situations. The
largest silo presented in detail is the 4.5 ton
cement stave silo.
THE
PEOPLE WHO PREPARED THIS MANUAL
Carl Lindblad served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Dahomey
(Benin)
from 1972 to 1975.
As a Volunteer, Lindblad worked in programs
designed to introduce and popularize a variety of grain
storage
technologies. Upon
his return to the United States, he began the task
of pulling together this manual as a consultant to VITA and
Peace
Corps. At present,
he serves as a consultant to a number of international
organizations, specializing in appropriate technologies for
grain storage -- in the areas of planning, extension and
evaluation.
He spends much of his time in the field.
Laurel Druben served as an International Voluntary Services,
Inc.
Volunteer in Laos from 1966 to 1968.
While in Laos she was a
curriculum planner and a teacher of English as a second
language.
Subsequently, she worked with a consulting firm evaluating
government-funded
research and development projects, ran a small
education-oriented
business, and was a free-lance consultant and proposal
writer. Druben, who
has worked and lived in India and Micronesia,
as well as Southeast Asia, is Director of Communications for
VITA.
Many thanks are due to the skilled and concerned people who
worked to
make this manual possible:
A number of VITA
people provided technical review, artwork,
and production
skills:
Staff assistance
-- John Goodell
Section 4, Vol. I
materials -- Frederick Bueche
Technical review
-- Douglas Barnes, Merle Esmay, Henry Highland,
Larry Van Fossen, Harold Willson, Kenton Harris
Artwork -- George
Clark, John Goodell, Kenneth Lloyd,
Nicholas Reinhardt, Guy Welch
Thanks are extended
to the following individuals and institutions
that provided
invaluable assistance in early stages of work on
the manual:
Mary Ernsberger
and Margot Aronson, Peace Corps Program and
Training
Journal, USA
Brenda Gates,
Peace Corps Information Collection & Exchange, USA
Tropical Stored
Products Center, TPI, Great Britain
Henry Barre and
Floyd Herum, Agricultural Engineering Department,
Ohio State
University, USA
Department of
Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University,
USA
Agricultural
Research Service, Department of Agriculture, USA
Extension Project
Implementation Department, Ministry of
Agriculture,
Ethiopia
F. W. Bennett,
Midwest Research Institute, USA
Supervised
Agricultural Credit Programs (SACP), Belize
Peter Giles,
Nicaragua
Donald Pfalser,
Agricultural Cooperatives Development International
(ACDI), USA
Technical
Assistance Bureau, US Agency for International
Development
(AID), USA
International
Development Research Center, University of Alberta,
Canada
League for
International Food Education (LIFE), USA
Institut de
Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales et des Cultures
Vivrieres
(IRAT), France
Post-Harvest Crop
Protection Project, University of Hawaii, USA
Agricultural
Engineering Service, FAO
African Rural
Storage Center, IITA, Nigeria
Institute for
Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University,
Nigeria
Swaziland Rural
Grain Storage Project
Jim McDowell,
Food Technology and Nutrition Section, UNICEF, Kenya
Gordon Yadcuik,
Centre Nationale de Recherches Agronomiques (CNRA),
Senegal
R. A. Boxall,
Indian Grain Storage Institute, A.P., India
Siribonse Boon-Long,
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation,
Thailand
Asian Institute
of Technology, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
Merrick Lockwood,
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council
International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines
Dante de Padua,
University of Los Banos, Philippines
THE SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS
Small Farm Grain Storage is part of a series of publications
combining
Peace Corps practical field experience with VITA technical
expertise
in areas in which development workers have special
difficulties
finding useful resource materials.
ACTION/Peace Corps
Since 1961 Peace Corps Volunteers have worked at the
grassroots level
in countries around the world in program areas such as
agriculture,
public health, and education.
Before beginning their two-year
assignments, Volunteers are given training in
cross-cultural, technical,
and language skills.
This training helps them to live and work
closely with the people of their host countries.
It helps them, too,
to approach development problems with new ideas that make
use of
locally available resources and are appropriate to the local
cultures.
Recently Peace Corps established an Information Collection
and
Exchange, so that these ideas developed during service in
the field
could be made available to the wide range of development
workers who
might find them useful.
Materials from the field are now being
collected, reviewed, and classified in the Information
Collection and
Exchange system. The
most useful materials will be shared with the
development world.
The Information Collection and Exchange provides
an important source of field-based research materials for
the production
of how-to manuals such as Small Farm Grain Storage.
VITA
VITA people are specialists who volunteer their free time to
answer
requests for technical assistance. Many VITA Volunteers have
lived
and worked in other countries, often as Peace Corps
Volunteers. Most
VITA people now work in the United States and other
developed
countries where they are engineers, doctors, scientists,
farmers,
architects, writers, artists, and so on.
But they continue to work
with people in other countries through VITA.
VITA Volunteers have
been providing technical assistance to the Third World for
almost
20 years.
Requests for assistance come to VITA from many nations.
Each request
is handled by a Volunteer with the right skills.
For example, a
question about grain storage in Latin America might be
handled by a
professor of agriculture, and a request for an improved
planting
implement would go to an agricultural engineer. These VITA
Volunteers,
many of whom have lived and worked in Third World countries,
are
familiar with the special problems of these areas and are
able to give
useful, and appropriate, answers.
VITA makes the expertise of VITA people available to a wide
audience
through its publications program.
HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL
Development workers can use material from this manual in a
number of
ways:
*
Discussions. The manual provides clear
presentations of grain
storage
principles from which you can take material to lead
discussions
with farmers and village leaders.
*
Demonstrations. There are suggestions
for demonstrations and
experiments
which you might find helpful to illustrate grain
storage
principles to farmers.
* Leaflets.
Some of the material has been prepared in
the form
of illustrated
leaflets which can be used directly by you
with a farmer.
They may require little or no adaptation by
you.
But, if you prefer, you can use the
structure of the
leaflet and
substitute photographs specific to your area.
The material
on rodent control in Volume II is a good example
of this kind of leaflet.
* Construction
Plans. Many of the construction plans
have been
simplified so
that you will be able to work more closely with
the
farmer. Some of the plans are fully
illustrated. You
could add photographs
of the work steps showing conditions in
your
area. It is likely that after you
introduce the material,
farmers can
follow the instructions themselves. The
plans are
written so that they would be easy to translate
into local
languages. The Improved Maize Drying
Crib in
Volume I is a
good example of a step-by-step, illustrated
presentation.
*
Checklists. Some of the material most
likely to be useful for
small-scale
farmers has been simplified and prepared in checklist
or hand-out
form. This material would lend itself
to
illustrations
or photographs, so it can better fit into the
local
situation. The checklists on
controlling grain storage
insect pests
included in Volume II are in this category.
* Examples.
The appendices contain examples of leaflets
that
have been
prepared by development workers in several countries.
These examples
have been included to give you some
idea of how
the materials in this manual might be organized,
illustrated,
translated, and presented to reach farmers.
* Sources.
Wherever Possible, addresses are given so
that you
can write for
more information on a subject.
* Further
Information. Other appendices contain
information on
areas which,
although important, cannot be covered fully within
the scope of
this manual, for example, storage program
planning.
A bibliography is provided at the end of
each volume.
These are some of the aims of Small Farm Grain Storage.
You will
probably find added uses.
While it is not possible to make this
manual specific to the situations or culture of your
particular area,
the information is presented so that you can do this very
easily by
making additions or substitutions to the material.
Dimensions are given in metric units in the text and
illustrations.
Conversion tables are provided at the end of each volume.
This manual will grow and change as its readers and users
send in
additional material, comments, and ideas for new approaches
to grain
storage problems and better ways to communicate with
farmers. Your
own ideas and conclusions are welcome.
A form has been included for
your comments.
Please send us the results of your silo or dryer
building. Let us
know how you used the information and how it could
be make even more useful to you.
Tell us how you changed a plan to
fit local needs.
Your experience will help us to produce manuals of growing
usefulness
to the world-wide development community.
REPLY FORM
For your convenience, a reply form has been inserted
here. Please
send it in and let us know how the manual has helped or can
be made
more helpful. If the
reply form is missing from your book, just put
your comments, suggestions, descriptions of problems, etc.,
on a
piece of paper and send them to:
GRAIN STORAGE
3706 RHODE ISLAND AVENUE
MT. RAINIER, MD 20822
U.S.A.
<FIGURE 1>
51cp01.gif (437x437)
INTRODUCTION
Each farmer has some method of storing his grain.
Any improvement in
this storage method must be made by steps the farmer sees as
the right
ones for his situation or need.
A farmer who stores his grain in sacks in
a corner of his house may not be ready to build a cement
silo. Because
this farmer is afraid that thieves will take his grain, he
may not want
to build any type of storage container outside his house.
For this farmer, trying a different drying method, or
cleaning his storage
bags, or improving a stacking arrangement, or adding
insecticides to sacked
grain could be a large, first step toward improved storage.
If a farmer is complaining about insects and rodents eating
his stored
grain, you have an opening to say, "Let's do something
about that problem."
But if the farmers in your area feel, "It's always been
that way, and there
is nothing we can do about it," your first job is to
convince the farmer
that there is something he can do about his problems.
Only you can introduce the material from this manual because
you know the
area where you work.
Hopefully, the earlier parts of this manual have
provided a lot of helpful information and material.
If a farmer is not
ready to make improvements in his storage method, perhaps
you can find the
material in this manual to put together leaflets which would
help show
what change could do for him.
One convinced farmer may be all it takes
to get things started.
Change only begins when farmers believe that new ideas and technologies
can
be helpful to them.
They may start out by making only small changes in
the method already being used.
But the important point is that something
different is being tried.
Then, when the farmer sees an improvement in
the quality of his stored grain, you have an opening to say,
"Now perhaps
you would like to try a storage method that can do even more
for you."
Perhaps that is the time to suggest a metal drum or a mud
silo.
You know from your work that change seems to be accepted
very slowly. It
is good to keep in mind the fact that for a farmer who has
always done
things the same way, adding a small amount of insecticide to
a sack of
grain is a large change.
It is very easy to give people more than they
want or are ready to receive.
This section of the manual brings together all the grain
storage information
which was introduced earlier:
* It discusses
and shows some traditional storage methods
and gives
specific directions for improving these methods.
Some of these
methods are sack, basket, and pit storage.
* It gives
plans for, among others, mudblock, ferrocement,
oil-drum and
cement-stave silos.
* It describes
other storage possibilities to give some
idea of the
range of methods in use.
This section, together with the earlier parts of the manual,
ought to help
you to help farmers define their choices.
To provide even more information,
there are some valuable appendices to the manual:
STORAGE PRINCIPLES
Whichever kind of storage method a farmer uses, there are
certain principles
upon which every method is based.
Every storage container, no matter what
it looks like or what it is made of, should:
* keep grain
cool and dry.
* protect
grain from insects.
* protect
grain from rodents.
All storage methods try to do the above three things.
But to do these
things requires the following good storage practices:
1.
Drying grain well (to 12-13% moisture
content) before
putting it
into storage.
2.
Putting clean grain only into containers
which have had
all old
grain, dust, straw, and insects removed.
3.
Keeping the grain cool and protected from
large changes
in outside
temperatures. This can be done in a
number
of ways --
by using building materials which do not easily
pass on
changes in outside temperatures to the stored grain,
by keeping
or building storage containers away from direct
sunlight,
by painting the containers white.
4.
Protecting the grain from insects by
following rules for
cleanliness and drying, by applying insecticide and/or by
putting
the grain into airtight storage.
5.
Waterproofing the buildings and containers as much as possible.
This is
done both by the way the building is constructed
and by
applying materials which keep water from soaking into
the
building material. Storage buildings
should be built on
well-drained locations. They
should not be placed where they
will be
flooded by ground water run-off during heavy rains.
6.
Making sure containers are rodent-proofed in
all possible ways.
7.
Checking the grain regularly while it is in
storage to
make sure
it is not infested, and following recleaning
instructions to destroy insects, if they are found when
the grain
is checked.
A farmer who has these seven points firmly in mind will know
why a
particular silo or storage method has been built or changed
in a certain
way. And he can then
do much to improve his own storage facility by
applying the knowledge to his own problems.
The ideas and suggestions for storage methods which follow
in this section,
no matter how different they look, all require that these
seven steps
be taken if they are to be successful.
FINDING A GOOD STORAGE PLACE
SCRIPT # 1
Suggested Use: This
script and the one which follows contain some
of
the important points to remember about finding,
cleaning, and repairing storage places.
VITA Volunteer
artist Guy T. Welch has provided illustrations
of
some of these points to give some ideas on ways
this
material can be presented through pictures.
* Rats, mice,
birds, insects,and mold destroy a lot of
grain.
It is not easy to keep these dangers away
from
your
grain. But you can do a lot to keep
them away.
* Fix a good
place to put your grain before you bring
it from the
field.
* The place for
grain storage is very important. Grain
storage places
must be built on well-drained ground,
so the
building or container does not get flooded
or take on too
much moisture from the ground.
* Most insects
and molds like warm, wet places.
* A good storage
place is cool and dry.
* Grain storage
is easier if you live in a cool, dry
land.
Grains are easier to protect.
* But insects
and rodents can attack even in these
places.
Farmers must protect the grain from these
pests wherever
they live.
* Some farmers store
grain in large clay jars with
thick walls.
* Some farmers
use metal drums for grain storage.
* Some farmers
in warm places put grain in buildings
with thick
mud, plaster, cement, or thatched walls
and
roofs. Thick walls help to keep the hot
air out.
Thick walls
help to keep the grain cool.
* Some farmers
store grain under the ground. Grain
stored under
the ground is kept cool by the earth.
* You can put
grain storage containers or jars on rocks
or wood.
This keeps the containers off the ground.
Air can get
under the container. This air cools the
grain.
* You can build
storage rooms or buildings on posts.
This keeps the
floor off the ground. Water from the
earth can not
get the floor wet. Air can pass under
the storage
building to cool the grain.
* There are many
ways to store grain.
* Remember that
the storage place must keep grain cool
and dry.
* Remember that
the storage place must be clean and free
of insects and
rodents.
* Your extension
worker can help you find a way to store
grain that is
good for you.
<FIGURE 2>
51cp05.gif (437x437)
51cp06.gif (486x486)
51cp07.gif (600x600)
51cp08.gif (486x486)
51cp09.gif (486x486)
<FIGURE 3>
<FIGURE 4>
<FIGURE 5>
<FIGURE 6>
CLEANING AND
REPAIRING YOUR STORAGE PLACE
SCRIPT # 2
* Your storage room
or building must be clean. Insects
live and have
families in dirty places. Rats, mice,
and other pests
like dirty places too.
* Take away and burn
or compost all dust, old pieces of
grain, dirt,
straw, and chaff from the storage place.
* There should be no
cracks and holes in the floor,
ceiling,or
walls. Insects and rodents use these
holes
to get in.
* Fill and seal all
cracks and holes.
* Seal large holes
in wooden storage places with sheet
metal, flattened
tin cans, or pieces of wood.
Concrete and
plaster make good sealing material for
plaster, brick,and
concrete buildings.
* Put paint or
whitewash on the walls and floors of the
storage area.
This paint helps close up very small
holes.
Insects like these small holes.
* Do not use any
poison until you talk to your extension
worker.
* Put mesh wire over
large openings and windows. This
will keep out
rats, chickens, and birds.
* The roof must keep
rain from coming in. The grain
must be kept dry.
* Mend all holes and
openings in the roof.
* Clean the outside
area around the storage place.
* Clean out the
containers that you put the grain in.
* Bags or sacks for
storing grain must be shaken.
* Bags or sacks
should be boiled in hot water and dried
in the sun.
Mend any holes you find in the bags.
* Check with an
extension worker for information on
poisons to kill
insects and rodents.
* The extension
worker will know what poison to use. He
will know how to
use the poison.
* Always remember
that many poisons can kill animals and
people.
* Use insecticide on
the inside and outside of your
storage area.
* Put insecticide on
all cracks and small places where
insects like to
live.
* Put out traps for
rodents.
* A good storage
place is free of insects and rodents.
It is clean and
dry.
<FIGURE 7>
51cp12.gif (486x486)
51cp13.gif (486x486)
51cp14.gif (486x486)
51cp15.gif (486x486)
51cp16.gif (486x486)
<FIGURE 8>
<FIGURE 9>
<FIGURE 10>
<FIGURE 11>
STORING GRAIN IN BASKET GRANARIES
Grain has been stored in basket-like containers made of
grass, reeds,
bamboo strips, or small branches for thousands of
years. The particular
building material depends upon the plants available near a
farmer.
These basket granaries are so traditional and widely used
that it does
not seem necessary to include a plan for making them.
There are almost
as many different kinds of baskets as there are villages
making them,
and the skills for this kind of work are passed on within
families.
What this manual will present is some suggestions for
improving basket
granaries so that grain stored in them is more protected
from insects
and molds.
To increase the protection of grain kept in baskets:
*
Keep the basket off the ground.
Make a strong platform
upon which the
basket can sit. The shape of the
platform
will depend
upon the shape of the basket. Putting
the basket on a
platform prevents moisture from coming
through the
ground into the basket. The platform
also
offers more
protection from rodents.
<FIGURE 12>
51cp17.gif (486x486)
*
Make sure the basket is well-protected from
the rain.
If it is a
grass or reed basket, keep it in the house
or some other
dry building. If it is woven of
material
which can be
kept outside, make sure the roof thatch
does not let
any rain into the grain.
*
Place rodent baffles (guards) on the legs of
platforms
which support
the baskets. These prevent rodents
from climbing
or jumping into the baskets. (The
rodent
proofing
section contains information on making rat
baffles.)
*
A tin can, with a plastic-cover that can be
put on and
taken off
easily, makes a good emptying chute (see
the picture
below). Cut the bottom out of the can
and
fit the open
end of the can into the lower part of
the
basket. This makes it unnecessary to
take off
the cover each
time grain is taken out.
*
Baskets can be plastered inside and outside
with
mud, clay, or cow dung.
Covers should be tight and
sealed with
plaster of the same material. It is
important for
farmers to realize that grain holding
a lot of
moisture, whether threshed or freshly
harvested,
should not be placed in baskets which
have been
plastered in this way. Plastering makes
the basket much
more airtight. Moist grain needs to
have air
passing through to dry it. If moist
grain
is put into
storage without enough air, it will mold
and rot quickly.
<FIGURE 13>
51cp18.gif (540x540)
INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR STORING GRAIN IN BASKETS
This instruction sheet includes some directions for using
insecticide
in basket storage.
You should include the names of insecticides available
in your area which are appropriate for use with grain being
stored
in baskets.
(Malathion and Pyrethrum are mentioned.)
You may want to use the information to make two instruction
sheets:
one explaining good basket storage without insecticide; the
other,
with use of insecticide.
Also, you may want to illustrate the sheets
if you hand them out to farmers in your area who use basket
granaries.
<FIGURE 14>
51cp19.gif (486x486)
CLEAN THE BASKET AND THE AREA:
*
Make sure the area around the basket is
clean. Baskets
should always
be kept inside a building unless the
baskets have
been built for outside use.
*
Place the basket on a platform so that it
will not
pick up
moisture from the ground.
*
Clean out all grain dust and broken grains
if the
basket has
been used before.
*
Mend any holes in the basket.
*
Plaster basket with mud, clay, or cow dung
if storing
very dry
grain.
CLEAN AND DRY THE GRAIN CAREFULLY.
IF YOU HAVE INSECTICIDE:
*
Dust the inside of the basket with
insecticide. Do
this
carefully so any insects will be killed.
*
Mix the dry grain with insecticide before
you put it
into the
basket. To mix the grain and
insecticide,
you must:
Place the dry
grain on a plastic sheet, clean floor,
or
hard-packed ground.
Sprinkle
insecticide over the grain. Use 1
packet
(4 oz.) of
Malathion or pyrethrum dust for each 100
kg of grain.
Mix the grain
and insecticide with a shovel until
they are
mixed very well.
IF YOU DO NOT HAVE INSECTICIDE:
*
Mix burned cow dung or wood ashes with the
grain.
PUT THE GRAIN INTO THE BASKET.
MAKE SURE THE COVER FITS TIGHTLY.
OPEN THE BASKET AND CHECK THE GRAIN EVERY TWO MONTHS.
IF YOU FIND
INSECTS:
*
Winnow, sieve, or place the grain in the
sun.
*
Clean the basket.
*
Add more insecticide or ashes.
*
Put the grain back and replace the cover
tightly.
WHEN YOU REMOVE THE GRAIN FOR FOOD, WASH IT CAREFULLY.
INSECTICIDES
CAN LEAVE MATERIAL ON THE GRAINS WHICH IS NOT GOOD FOR
PEOPLE TO EAT.
STORING GRAIN IN SACKS
Putting grain in sacks (bags) is a very old
method of storing.
Storage sacks are made
of woven jute, hemp, sisal, local grasses,
cotton -- whatever material is available
in the area. Sacks
are relatively expensive
as they do not often last for more
than two seasons.
Sacks do not give a lot
of natural protection against insects,
rodents, and moisture.
But sack storage
has some advantages for the small farmer,
and there are things farmers can do to
protect their sacked grain.
<FIGURE 15>
51cp21a.gif (317x317)
The Advantages of Sack Storage for Farmers:
*
Grain stored in sacks made of fibers can
have a little
higher moisture content than grain put
into airtight
storage.
If the sacks are properly stacked, air can
move through
the sacks to dry and cool the grain.
<FIGURE 16>
51cp21b.gif (437x437)
*
Sacks are easy to label.
Farmers can label old
grain sacks and new grain sacks to keep them
separate. Seed grain can be
marked and kept
separately
from the other grains.
*
Sacks are easy to move around.
And sacks or
parts of
sacks can be used as they are needed.
*
Sacks can be stored in a farmer's house - no special
buildings or
containers are needed.
*
Farmers in a village may decide to build a
shed
to hold the
grain belonging to all the village's
farmers.
It is easy to mark sacks so that each
farmer's
grain can be found simply.
Grain stored in fiber sacks is easily attacked by insects,
rodents,
and molds. Often
these attacks are worse because a farmer has no
all he can to protect his grain sacks.
CONTROLLING MOISTURE AND PREVENTING MOLDING IN SACKED GRAIN
*
Dry the grain well.
Although grain can contain
about two
percent (2%) more moisture for sack
storage than
for airtight storage, the grain should
be as dry as
possible.
Check the
grain every two weeks. Suggest to the
farmer that
he make checking his grain part of a
weekly or
bi-weekly routine. Put his hand into
a sack of
grain to check for heating. He can
smell the
grain and look for dark kernels: signs
of mold.
If these signs are found, he should
dump out the
grain and dry it again.
*
Waterproof the walls and roof of the
building where
the grain is
stored.
STACK THE
SACKS ON PLATFORMS RAISED OFF THE FLOOR.
This keeps
sacked grain from taking moisture from
the
floor. Farmers can make these platforms
out
of whatever
materials they have. If no wood or
bricks are
available to make a platform, the
ground can be
covered with plastic sheets. The
raised
platform is better than the plastic because
it also
allows air to flow under the sacked grain.
<FIGURE 17>
51cp22.gif (486x486)
*
Stack the sacks in a neat manner. Leave
space between
the sacks so
that air can move freely between the
sacks.
<FIGURE 18>
51cp23a.gif (486x486)
CONTROLLING INSECT ATTACKS ON SACKED GRAIN
*
Mend cracks in the walls, roof,
and doors of
the building where
grain is
kept. This mending
keeps insects
from getting in
and out of
the building through
the cracks.
<FIGURE 19>
51cp23b.gif (353x353)
*
Remove and check sacks of grain
left from the
last harvest. The
farmer should
take them outside
before he
cleans the storeroom.
This grain
should be winnowed,
sieved, and
spread out in the
sun for a
time before it is put
back into the
bags. If the rain
is seived,
light a fire and burn all the insects found, so they
will not move
right back into the grain.
*
Clean the room well before placing
the sacks
inside. Make sure there
is no dust,
dirt, and old grain left.
Sweep walls
and ceilings as well as
the
floors. Some farmers may want
to burn a small,
smoky fire in the
room to drive
out insects, if they
are not going
to use insecticide to
protect the
inside of the building.
<FIGURE 20>
51cp23c.gif (317x317)
If Insecticide Is Available
*
Apply insecticide to the storage
building. You can recommend
DDT,
Malathion, and Lindane for use on buildings and
instruct the
farmer on use of these three poisons.
There
also are
other insecticides that can be used on buildings.
*
Dust insecticide on the sacks before the
grain is put in.
(Or the
insecticide can be put on the bags as they are
stacked.
There is a page attached to the end of this
section
which gives
instructions on applying insecticides
as you stack
grain.) Malathion is a safe insecticide
for a farmer
to use for this purpose -- it is safe
for him to
use and safe for his grain. Brush the
sacks
with a stiff
brush and then shake them well. Brush
both the
outside and the inside of the sack. Put
Malathion on
both the inside and the outside of the
sack.
*
Mix the grain with insecticide before it is
placed in
bags.
Use only clean, dry grain. See the end of
this
section for
instructions on mixing grain and insecticide
for sack
storage.
If Insecticide Is Not Used
*
Clean the sacks carefully.
Shake the sacks well.
If
sacks are
made of a material which can be placed in
hot water,
boil the sacks or dip them in very hot
water.
Dry the sacks in the hot sun.
If sacks can
not be placed
in water, brush them well and place them
in the
sun. Make sure both the inside and the
outside
get exposed
to the sun.
<FIGURE 21>
51cp24.gif (382x528)
*
Use only clean, dry grain.
The grain should be checked.
It should be
free of insects (the easily seen adults,
at least).
*
Mix ash from cattle dung or wood or fine
sand with the
grain if
insecticide is not to be used. Use one,
10-liter
bucket of ash
for each 100kg of grain.
*
Stack the sacks carefully (as shown
earlier). The platform
holding the
sacks must be placed away from the walls
because there
are insects which live in wood and thatch
which will
move to the stored grain.
<FIGURE 22>
51cp25a.gif (437x437)
*
Check the grain regularly.
If no insecticide has been used,
a farmer may
have to dump the grain out, get the insects out,
and re-bag
the grain every two months or so. If
Malathion is
used, that
insecticide possibly will have to be reapplied after
four months
of storage.
CONTROLLING RODENT ATTACKS ON SACKED GRAIN
*
Keep the area around the sacks clear of
dirt,
broken
grains, grain dust, and trash. This
clearing
makes it
harder for rats and mice to find home and
food near the
stored grain.
<FIGURE 23>
51cp25b.gif (486x486)
-- Cover and
repair holes that rodents might use to get
into the
building where the grain is stored.
-- Keep the sacks
off the floor. This does not stop
rats and
mice from attacking the grain. but it
does
make
cleaning, poisoning and baiting, and looking
for rats
and mice easier.
-- Move the
stacks if rodents are seen. Then use
traps
and
poisoned baits near the pathways and rodent holes.
(See the
section on rodent control for more information
on using
traps and poisons to control rodents).
<FIGURE 24>
51cp26.gif (393x393)
KEY POINTS FOR SUCCESSFUL SACK STORAGE
*
Sacks and buildings which are clean.
*
Dry grain which is free of insects.
*
Good shelter which keeps out rain, insects,
rodents,
and birds.
*
Careful checking of the grain while it is in
storage.
The following pages include:
*
Instructions which can be given to farmers
to aid them with
mixing grain
and insecticides for sack and small-container
storage.
*
Instructions for adding insecticide while
stacking layers
of grain
bags.
*
Sample material for a leaflet which could be
made to
illustrate
proper sack storage through pictures.
MIXING GRAIN AND INSECTICIDES
FOR
SACK AND SMALL-CONTAINER STORAGE
The following insecticides and dosages are recommended for
direct mixing
with grain:
--
Malathion. Use 120 grams of 1.0% dust
for each 200kg
of grain.
-- Lindane.
Use 120 grams of 0.1% dust for each 200kg of
grain.
--
pyrethrum. Use 120 grams of 0.2%
pyrethrins plus 1.0%
piperonyl butoxide dust for each 200kg of
grain.
If you can find Malathion, for example, only in 2%, 5%, or
.5% mixtures,
you will have to adjust the strength of the
insecticide. For example,
if you are using 2.0% Dust,you need to use only 60 grams of
2.0% Dust
per 200kg.
*
Apply the insecticide to one half sack of
grain at a
time.
*
Empty one half of the grain from a sack onto
hard-packed
earth, a
plastic sheet, or clean floor.
*
Put 60 grams of insecticide dust on the
grain.
*
Turn the grain over and over with a
shovel. Make sure
the grain and
insecticide are well-mixed.
*
Empty the other half of the sack on top of
the grain you
have just
mixed.
*
Put the rest (the other half -- 60 grams) of
the insecticide
on the grain.
*
Mix very well.
*
Put the grain back into the sack and close
it tightly.
REMEMBER: THE GRAIN
MUST BE DRY BEFORE THE INSECTICIDE CAN BE USED.
INSECTICIDES DO NOT WORK AS WELL IF THE GRAIN IS TOO MOIST.
TREATING STACKS OF SACKED GRAIN
RECOMMENDED INSECTICIDES AND DOSAGES
There are two ways to apply insecticide to stacks of sacked
grain:
1.
Layer by Layer
Spray or dust
each layer of sacks with Malathion or Lindane
as the stack
is being built.
Malathion --
25 grams of 2.0% Dust per sack
or
50 grams of 2.0% Dust per square meter
Lindane
-- 25 grams of 0.5% Dust per sack
or
50 grams of 0.5% Dust per square meter
2.
Stack Treatment
Build the
stack first. Then spray all four sides
and the top
surface of the
stack. Use Dispersible Powder
formulations of
Malathion and
Lindane at the dosages recommended for spraying
storage
buildings.
When this treatment is finished, apply a band of insecticide
around the
bottoms of the stacks to control crawling insects.
Malathion is best
for this job, though where it is not available, Lindane or
DDT may be used.
STORING GRAIN IN SACKS
Suggested Uses: This
is an easy-to-read summary of the important
things to remember for good sack storage.
Pick out
the
points that best fit your situation and use them
with
farmers in your area. They are simply
worded
and
can easily be pictured by using drawings or photographs;
they
can be translated easily.
*
Grain is often stored in sacks.
Sacks are also called bags.
*
Sacks are made of different things.
*
Sacks are easy to put away.
You can store them in a corner
of the house.
*
You can put grain sacks in a special storage
building.
*
Sacks are easy to carry.
*
Each sack can be labeled to show what is
inside.
*
Put your name on each sack.
It is easy to show which grain
belongs to
you.
*
Insects, rats, and molds can attack grain
kept in sacks.
*
You can protect the sacks from these
dangers. You must start
before the
grain goes into the sack.
*
Clean your storage area well.
*
Make sure there is no dust, old grain,
straw, or trash in
the storage
place.
*
Mend holes in the roof, floor, or walls.
*
Check for cracks.
Insects hide there.
*
Make sure rain and water from the ground can not get the
grain wet.
*
Put rat guards on the legs of storage
containers or buildings.
*
Ask your extension agent about insecticides
you can use.
*
Shake out old storage sacks.
*
Put old sacks in boiling water, if possible.
*
Dry old sacks in bright sunlight.
*
Mend holes in the sacks.
*
Spray or dust the sacks with insecticide.
*
Spray or dust the building with insecticide.
*
Make sure the grain you put into the sack
has no
insects in
it.
*
Put only clean, dry grain into sacks.
*
Some insect poisons can be put into the sack
with the
grain.
This protects the grain from insects for
some
time.
Ask your extension agent before you do this.
Some poisons
can poison the grain.
*
You can add sand and ash to the grain in the
sack.
Insects do
not like these materials.
*
Poison is better than sand and ash.
But sand and
ash are
better than putting the grain in with no
protection.
*
Close all sacks tightly.
*
Put each kind of grain in a separate sack.
*
Place grain sacks off the ground.
*
If you have many sacks, stack the sacks
well. Leave
room between
the sacks. Air in the room will cool
the grain
better if there is room between the sacks.
*
Do not stack sacks against the walls.
Insects and
termites get
into the grain from the walls.
*
Check the sacks often. Look for
insects. Smell for
mold.
Look for wet places.
*
If you find insects or mold, dump the grain
out of
the sack and
leave it in the sun. Sieve the grain.
*
Clean the sacks again.
*
Put the grain back into the sacks
immediately after
cleaning.
REMEMBER: THERE ARE
POISONS WHICH YOU CAN ADD TO THE SACKS OF GRAIN
AND OTHERS
WHICH ARE TO BE USED ONLY ON NON-FOOD LIKE
COTTON.
THESE
POISONS CAN BE DANGEROUS.
DO NOT USE
POISON BEFORE YOU TALK WITH YOUR EXTENSION
WORKER.
AIRTIGHT STORAGE
INTRODUCTION
Insects can still grow and reproduce in very dry grain.
Grain dried to
a 12 or 13% moisture level will not mold, but can still be
very good food
for insects.
The moisture level in grain has to be 9% or less to slow
down insect
development. Very
high and very low temperatures also slow down insect
growth. But most
farmers will have trouble getting their grain below
12% moisture and in using temperature to control insect
development.
They often do not have the special equipment necessary to do
these things.
More and more farmers do use insecticides to control insects
in grain.
But some insecticides are dangerous; some are expensive;
sometimes they
are not available; and there is increasing concern about
using chemicals
of any kind on food products.
HOW IT WORKS
Airtight storage simply means putting grain into containers
which keep
air from getting into the grain.
Some air is let into the container at
the time the grain is put into storage.
But after the container is sealed,
no more air enters.
The respiration of the grain and any insects in it
uses up all the oxygen.
Insects need oxygen to live.
They die without
it. Any molds
present which require oxygen also will die.
You can show
farmers how airtight storage works by putting
some insects
and grains on a very smooth surface and
turning a
glass over on top of them. Make sure
the glass
is tight
against the surface. Seal it with wax
or some
other
material. Or seal some grain kernels
and insects in
a glass
jar. Cover the jar with a screw-on lid
or a
plastic
sheet. Just make sure no air can enter
the container!
Wait for a
while. The insects will begin to move
more
slowly.
Finally, they will die.
How long it takes for
the insects to
die will depend upon the number of insects,
the amount of
grain, and the size of the glass container.
You can speed
up the experiment by placing a lighted
candle under
the glass container. The flame on the
candle
requires oxygen to keep burning. The
flame
will use up
the oxygen in the container quickly.
When the
oxygen is gone, the flame will go out.
Soon,
the insects
will die.
The lack of oxygen, which kills insects, does not seem to
hurt the
grain or to keep seed grain from germinating when it is
planted.
Successful airtight storage depends upon a number of things:
*
Building containers which are airtight.
This
means using
materials which do not let air flow
through
them, for example, metal, plastic, concrete.
These
containers must be checked to make
sure there
are no cracks or holes. Sometimes a
farmer will
see light coming through cracks in a
large
container. If the container is a gourd,
for
example, he can check for cracks by filling it
with water
to see if there are any leaks. All
cracks in
storage containers should be sealed
for good
protection. In addition, it is usually
a good idea
to coat or paint the entire outside
(and
sometimes the inside) surface of the container
with tar or
oil-based paints (they are
waterproof
and also do not let air pass through).
For a
farmer who cannot afford to buy these materials,
there may
be local trees and plants
which
produce materials useful for waterproofing.
*
Sealing tightly the holes for putting grain
into
the
container and for taking grain out.
Tar, wax,
or pieces
of rubber cut from old tires, and inner
tubes can
be used for this.
*
Filling airtight storage containers to the
top
is
important. Full containers, which are
sealed
against
air, can kill insects in a few days.
But
if the
container is not full, the insects take a
lot longer
to die. And before they die, they may
damage a
lot of grain.
*
Keeping the storage container closed.
Unless the
airtight
container is quite small, farmers probably
will want
to store the grain they use for food
separately. The storage
container holding the food
grain is
opened often. Every time a container is
opened,
more air containing oxygen enters the
stored
grain. This added air and frequent
opening
encourages
insect growth.
Some of the storage methods used for thousands of years have
been based
loosely on the principles of airtight storage.
A farmer might not call
his method airtight storage, or be able to tell you why it
works. He
stores his grain this way because it keeps his grain pretty
safe, and he
has been doing it this way for many years.
Many of these methods are
basically good.
Improvements can make them more airtight and, therefore,
increase their ability to protect grain.
CHOOSING A METHOD OF AIRTIGHT STORAGE
A farmer has to decide what he needs his storage method to
do, and, then,
he must figure the costs of each method.
Some of the methods, such as
metal drums and plastic sacks, cost more money.
But they are definitely
airtight when used correctly and are very likely to make up
their costs
by good storage of grain.
Other methods, such as the Improved Mudblock
Silo, are harder to make airtight, take longer to build, and
require more
upkeep. But they can
hold large amounts of grain, and they can be made
with local materials.
Airtight storage is something farmers who store dry grain
should work
toward.
(REMEMBER: IF THE FARMER IS
STORING GRAIN WHICH HAS A MOISTURE
CONTENT OVER 12-13%, HE SHOULD NOT USE AIRTIGHT
STORAGE. Grain which has
a high moisture content should be stored so that air can
pass over the
kernels.)
The rest of the material included in this section describes
storage
methods which are quite airtight and waterproof or can be
made so by
making the various improvements described here.
This material should
serve as a useful guide to some of the storage possibilities
that are
available to small-scale farmers.
STORING IN GOURDS AND BASKETS
Gourds are the hard, dried outside cases (skins) of certain
fruits or vegetables
(they are members of the squash family).
They are found in many
places and are used for storing small amounts of grain.
Grain for planting
is often stored in gourds.
Scientists are working to discover ways of making gourds
effective airtight
containers for grain that has no more than 12-13% moisture
in it. Here
are some of the findings:
*
Linseed oil or varnish painted all
over the
outside of the gourd
makes it
almost airtight.
*
The stopper or cover for the gourd
has to be
sealed well.
*
Pitch and bitumen are easier for
farmers to
get and seem to make the
gourds
airtight.
*
Any thick substance which will stick
to the gourd
will work very well.
There are
probably local materials
which can be
found and made to seal
the
gourd. It is likely that some
of the
materials found for waterproofing
soil would
be useful
to seal the
gourds. If the
material
stays sticky and does
not dry,
sprinkle sand or earth all
over it.
<FIGURE 25>
51cp34.gif (317x317)
If gourd-shaped vessels made of clay or other local
materials are available
in your area, perhaps these can be made airtight in the same
way.
Baskets made of local materials also can be made more
airtight. Cover the
baskets inside and out with mud plaster.
Make sure the cover closes
tightly. The outside
of the basket can then be coated with a waterproofing
or sealing-material.
Possible advantages:
Disadvantages:
* Useful for storing
seed grain *
Gourds do not hold large amounts
and smaller
quantities for food. of grain.
* Easy to get to the
grain and to
check for insects.
* Easy to label, so
the farmer knows what
kind of grain is
in each container.
STORING GRAIN IN UNDERGROUND PITS
Farmers store grain in underground pits (holes) in many
parts of the world.
Pits are used for storing threshed sorghum and maize.
They also are used
for wheat, peas, and beans.
In areas where pit storage is used, it has
served farmers well as a way of avoiding theft of the grain
(because the
pits are hidden).
Also, because the pits are dug deep into the earth, they
keep the grain cool.
In addition, some pits are relatively airtight.
However, pit storage is generally not a storage method to
encourage a
farmer to adopt. If
a farmer is looking for a storage method, he is more
likely to get airtight storage by using oil drums, plastic
sacks, etc.
<FIGURE 26>
51cp35.gif (393x393)
DRY PITS
There are many, many kinds of pits.
The pits themselves are not always
airtight or waterproof.
Therefore, some farmers line the pits with straw
to absorb moisture from the earth or from leaks in the
covers. The
straw gets damp and becomes moldy.
These molds use up any air in the
storage pit, so that any insects present in the grain
die. Often in
underground storage pits, the grain at the top and around
the sides of
the pit is moldy. The
main part of the grain, however, stores well.
WET PITS
In some areas, farmers build wet pits.
During the rainy season,,the water
in the ground may rise right into the pit.
The grain in this case is full
of water. But the
grain respires more quickly when wet and uses up the
oxygen. Insects and
molds requiring oxygen die. Often these
wet pits
are built where cattle are kept because cow dung uses up
oxygen as it
decomposes. The
grain kept in wet pits may ferment (sour) and thus is
not good for seed.
But often it seems to store better than grain kept
in drier pits.
IMPROVING PITS
The question to keep in mind here is whether or not an
improvement in
the traditional pit is wise or necessary.
A farmer who does not open his
pit often may have very light losses from insects and
molds. In this
case, making improvements may not be necessary.
However, in areas where farmers have lost a lot of grain
stored in pits
due to insects and molds, it may be a good idea to offer
several suggestions
for improving the pit storage.
Pit storage can be made more safe by improving
the covers, building shelters over the pits,,or by using a
lining
in the pits.
Replacing Covers
Pit storage usually can be improved by replacing wood and
mud covers with
metal or plastic covers.
*
Use one large sheet of metal or plastic to
cover the entire
area.
*
Make a hole in the middle of the large
sheet. This is,so grain
can be taken
out. Cover the smaller hole with a
piece of
of the same
material.
*
Seal the entire cover with a mixture of mud
or dung or with
bitumen.
Building Shelters
Some farmers build shelters over the pit stores.
The shelters should be
movable so that when the sun is shining, the pit can be
exposed for drying.
The shelter should be used when it rains.
The problem with this type of
shelter is that the farmer cannot keep the place of the pit
a secret and
the grain may be taken by thieves.
Improving Pit Linings
The other area where pits can be improved is the lining used
in the pit.
Straw and Mat Lining
*
Put down a layer of straw on the pit
floor. Cover the
straw with
mats made from bamboo or local grasses.
*
Line the walls with straw and matting as
well.
*
Pour in dry grain to the top of the lining.
*
Continue placing the lining and pouring the
grain until
the pit is
full.
<FIGURE 27>
51cp37a.gif (600x600)
Advantages: Uses local material
and costs nothing.
Stores grain much better than an unlined pit.
Disadvantages: Does not protect
the grain as well as the following
methods.
Plastic Bags
*
Place very dry grain in
plastic
sacks.
*
Seal tightly as shown.
*
Store sacks in the pit.
*
Seal the pit well.
<FIGURE 28>
51cp37b.gif (486x486)
Advantages:
Airtight if the
bags are well
sealed.
A farmer can
remove part of the grain
easily without
letting air and
moisture into
the rest of the grain.
Disadvantages:
May be expensive
or hard-to-get.
Plastic Lining
*
Line the pit with large plastic sheets or
with plastic bags cut
open to make
sheets.
*
Make sure the edges of the plastic sheet lie
over each other.
*
Fill the pit with clean, dry grain and seal
tightly.
Advantages:
Gives good protection from moisture if the
plastic is sealed.
Disadvantages: Can be damaged
easily.
Plastic may be expensive, unavailable, and
hard to replace.
Using Plastic Lining and Plastic Bags in Large Pits
*
Lay plastic sheets or cut-open plastic bags
on the floor.
*
Fill a number of plastic bags with very dry
grain and put these
against the
sides of the pit.
*
Pour dry grain into the space between the
floor and the tops
of the sacks.
*
Put another layer of filled plastic sacks
against the walls
on top of the
sacks already in the pit.
*
Fill the space with grain.
*
Continue placing plastic sacks against the
sides and pouring
in grain
until the pit is full.
*
Cover the top of the grain with plastic.
*
Seal the pit
<FIGURE 29>
51cp38.gif (540x540)
Advantages: Keeps
most of the grain
very well.
Stores
large amounts of
grain.
Disadvantages:
May be hard to
find
plastic.
May be
expensive.
Loses some
grain because
it falls down
between the
bags and the
walls of the
pit.
Concrete Linings
There has been work done on various concrete linings for
underground pits.
Because this method requires more labor, material and money,
it is not
as easy for a small farmer to use.
However, it will be outlined in more
detail in the part of this manual which discusses
ferrocement.
STORING GRAIN IN PLASTIC SACKS
Plastic bags make good airtight storage containers.
*
Use plastic bags which are .20 to .25mm
thick (500-700 gauge).
*
Make sure there are no holes in the
plastic. Even the
smallest hole
will cause problems.
*
Some insects can puncture plastic when
trying to escape from
the sack. But
this can be stopped by putting a cloth bag
of tightly
woven cotton inside the plastic bag.
The
cloth is
added protection.
*
Use grain which is very dry.
*
Add insecticide to the grain.
It can take a week or more
for insects
to use up the oxygen which is in the bag.
*
Fill the sacks and seal them tightly.
*
Store the filled bags off the ground on a
smooth surface so
that they
will not be punctured by the floor or anything
sharp.
Advantages:
Plastic bags are easy to store.
Plastic bags are easy to move around.
They provide good protection against insects.
Plastic bags make good containers for fumigating
small quantities of grain.
Disadvantages: Plastic can be
torn or punctured easily.
They are generally good for only one year
and must be replaced after that because
small holes have been made in them.
Rodents can eat through plastic.
Plastic bags are expensive in some area.
The following leaflet, prepared by VITA artist Ken Lloyd is
designed to
show farmers a good procedure for storing dry grain in
plastic sacks.
<FIGURE 30>
51cp40.gif (600x600)
51cp41.gif (600x600)
51cp42.gif (600x600)
<FIGURE 31>
<FIGURE 32>
STORING GRAIN IN METAL DRUMS
In many parts of the world, 220-litre oil drums
are available and not too expensive.
If farmers
in your area can find oil drums, this is a
storage method which may be a good improvement.
Sorghum, maize, millet, cowpeas, and groundnuts
are among the materials which can be stored
successfully in these drums.
The grain should
be dry (12% moisture or less) when it is put
into the drum.
<FIGURE 33>
51cp43.gif (317x317)
Here is the procedure for using a drum:
*
Make sure the drum is clean and dry inside.
*
Check for holes.
Holes in these drums can be plugged
with wax.
*
Pour clean, dry grain into the drum through
the small
top
opening. Use a wide-mouth funnel to help
with
this job.
*
Shake the drum to let the grain settle; then
fill it
again.
*
Make sure the drum is full.
*
Screw the cap on tightly.
If the rubber ring on the
inside of the
cap is missing, smear the cap with grease.
Each drum holds about 660kg of grain.
Advantages:
Provides good airtight storage control of
insects.
Protects the grain from rodents.
Works well for seed grain; does not seem to hurt
the ability of the seed to
germinate.
Is
available in most areas and is not expensive.
Makes a good container to fumigate grain in.
Disadvantages: Has a small
opening for filling and emptying.
Special clamp-on lid is
sometimes available.
But this lid does not create airtight conditions
and insecticides must be used.
Works best when grain is being stored 5 months
or more.
Has to be kept out of sunlight to prevent
moisture changes and heating in the stored
grain.
Can rust and must be repaired carefully for
airtight storage to be
continued.
<FIGURE 34>
51cp44.gif (317x317)
STORING GRAIN IN METAL BINS
Metal bins are being tried for small-scale use in many parts
of the world.
In some areas, farmers can buy metal bins in different
sizes. They are
sometimes expensive, and they rust in moist areas.
Often a farmer needs
to be a member of a credit program to get the money to buy
this type of
metal silo or bin.
Then he repays the money for the cost of the bin.
Hopefully,
the bin pays for itself by reducing losses to the stored
grain due
to attacks by insects and rodents.
Metal bins can also be built quite easily:
but the farmer must know how
to weld and work with metal.
Or someone with these skills must be able
to help.
CHARACTERISTICS OF METAL BINS
*
Built above the ground -- either
on platforms
or on
cement bases
when kept outside.
The metal
bottoms will
rust because
of contact with
ground water
if the bins are
on the
ground.
*
Rounded in shape to hold the
pressure of
the grain better:
a square bin
would have more
seams and be
more likely to
break open.
*
Painted white or stored out of
the sun
because metal conducts
(passes on)
heat very well.
<FIGURE 35>
51cp45.gif (486x486)
Advantages of Metal Bins
*
Good control of insects, molds, and rodents
if bins are well-made,
well-sealed,
kept off the ground, and out of the sun.
*
Small metal bins are lightweight and may be
moved easily.
*
A metal bin may pay for itself out of the
farmer's increased
profit.
This is true (for all improved storage
methods) only
where initial
costs are not too high or a good credit program
is available.
Disadvantages of Metal Bins
*
Metal sheets for building the silo are more
expensive than
most locally
available materials, or, in some areas, cement.
*
Construction of a bin requires special
equipment to cut and
weld the
metal and people trained in working with metal.
*
Metal rusts quickly in hot, wet places.
Sheet metal for bins
must be
galvanized or painted regularly to protect the metal
from
rusting. This is another cost to the
farmer.
Blacksmiths and people with metal-working experience, who
might be interested
in making bins to fit local needs,should be encouraged to
try to do so.
Experimenting with various designs will give information
which can help
you decide what kind of metal bin will work best in your
area.
The following information on various metal bins is provided
to give some
idea of what types of bins are available.
Wherever possible, an address
is included so that you may write for further information.
CIRCULAR STEEL BIN
The bin shown here is very useful for storing small
quantities of grain
indoors. It can be
made in four sizes, ranging from 500kg to 3 tons.
The chart included here gives the dimensions for each size
of circular
steel bin.
<FIGURE 36>
51cp46.gif (486x486)
Description
*
Opens at the top for filling and has a spout
at the bottom
for emptying.
*
Has a flat top and bottom made of plain Mild
Steel sheets.
*
Has circular sides made of corrugated Mild
Steel sheets.
*
Comes in 4-6 pieces which can be put
together on site. The
bin can be
taken apart when not in use and put back together
when it is
needed again.
*
Prevents uneven temperatures within the bin
by building-in
a special
arrangement.
*
Uses neoprene washers with bolts to make the
bin airtight.
*
May be used for fumigation, as required.
*
Can be made in any small sheet-metal
workshop.
*
Stores grain to be used for seed safely.
Capacity Height
(cm) Diameter (cm)
Gauge Steel Sheet
500kg
125 80
28
1 ton
165 100
26
2 ton
210 124
24
3 ton
210 150
24
For further information
on this and other bins which
might be of use
to small farmers in your area, please write to:
The Grain
Storage Research & Training Center
Department of
Food
Government of
India
Hapur, Uttar
Pradesh
India
METAL BINS FOR HOME USE
A "Save Grain Campaign," begun in India in 1965,
resulted in a number of
metal bins which were designed specially for use in the home
and on a
small farm.
<FIGURE 37>
51cp48.gif (486x486)
Two styles of bins are pictured here. Each bin is pictured
in two sizes.
The following chart shows how many kilograms of paddy,
maize, or wheat
each size of bin can hold.
CAPACITY
PADDY(*) MAIZE(**)
WHEAT(***)
Cubic Meters
kg
kg
kg
0.42
230
300
315
0.68
375
485
510
0.82
450
580
615
1.35
745
960 1015
(*) Approximately 550kg per cubic meter
(**) Approximately 710kg per cubic meter
(***) Approximately 750kg per cubic meter
The specifications and technical drawings for these bins are
available
in booklet form from:
Save Grain
Campaign
Ministry of
Agriculture
Department of
Food
Krishi Bhavan
New Delhi,
India
SHEET METAL SILO
This silo was developed by the Institute of Tropical
Agriculture Research
in Benin (formerly, Dahomey), Africa.
It is a good example of an easily
made metal storage container.
The model below is made of sheet metal, 1mm thick, welded
together at
the seams. It has
two openings, one for filling at the top of the bin and
one for emptying at the bottom.
The cost of the 3 ton model shown here
is about $175 (U.S. currency) when manufactured in small
numbers.
<FIGURE 38>
51cp49.gif (540x540)
FUMIGATION OF SMALL QUANTITIES OF STORED GRAIN
Fumigants are insecticides in the form of gas.
This gas can kill adult
insects living outside the grain kernels and larval stages
living inside the
kernels. Once the
gas disappears from the grain, there is no more protection
against insects.
BECAUSE FUMIGANTS ARE GASES, THEY MUST ONLY BE USED IN
CONTAINERS THAT
WILL NOT LET ANY OF THE GAS GET OUT.
THIS GAS CAN KILL HUMANS AND ANIMALS
AS WELL AS INSECTS.
<FIGURE 39>
51cp50a.gif (57x353)
The easiest and safest fumigant to use is Phostoxin.
In many areas,
Phostoxin is relatively expensive.
You can buy it in the form of tablets
or pellets. These
formulations only start to turn into gas when they are
taken out of their containers and placed in the air.
When the moisture
from the air touches the tablets, the gas begins to
form. Phostoxin containers
must always be tightly sealed when not being used.
<FIGURE 40>
51cp50b.gif (200x600)
It is not a good idea for a farmer to use Phostoxin himself
-- unless he has
used it before, and you are sure he understands the use of
this fumigant.
But you should know how to use Phostoxin so that you can
instruct and help
the farmer fumigate his grain.
So the following pages present fumigation procedures which
will be most
helpful to the small-scale farmer:
fumigation for stacked grain sacks;
fumigation in plastic bags; fumigation in small metal bins,
silos, and
oil drums.
REMEMBER: WEAR
GLOVES WHEN YOU USE PHOSTOXIN.
KNOW WHAT
TO DO IN CASE OF AN ACCIDENT.
KEEP ALL
PEOPLE AND ANIMALS AWAY FROM THE AREA WHERE
FUMIGATION
IS BEING DONE.
FUMIGATING GRAIN IN PLASTIC BAGS
* Use 1 pellet of
PHOSTOXIN for each 100kg of grain.
Tablets contain
more poison than pellets; 5 pellets are equal
to 1 tablet.
If you cannot find pellets, you can cut one
tablet
in 4 pieces.
Therefore, one tablet will fumigate 4 bags
of grain.
CUTTING PHOSTOXIN
TABLETS IS DANGEROUS AND MUST BE DONE VERY CAREFULLY.
You must be sure
there are no little pieces of the tablets lying
around after you
cut. If there are pieces, drop the
pieces into
a large pail of
water which has soap in it. Do this
outside in
the open air.
The gas will cause bubbling in the
water. When
the bubbles
disappear, you can throw the mixture away.
* Use heavy gauge
(500 gauge) plastic bags.
* Make sure the bags
have no holes or tears. Mend any holes
with
tape.
* Fill a bag with
grain.
* Put the pellet of
Phostoxin in an unsealed envelope or piece of
paper and place
the packet on top of the grain in the bag.
* Close the bag and
tie as shown.
<FIGURE 41>
51cp51.gif (600x600)
* Place a warning on
the bag so no one will touch or open the bag.
* Leave the bag as
it is for at least 5 days. It is even
better to
keep the grain in
the bag tightly sealed until it is needed.
Gas
cannot protect
against new attack, but once fumigation has killed
any insects
present, the plastic bag will maintain airtight storage
conditions which
will control insects.
NOTE:
PHOSTOXIN may be expensive and may not be
available in all
areas.
Check with your extension agent for
information on
other insecticides which might be
useful for you to use on
your stored
grain.
FUMIGATING SACKED GRAIN UNDER PLASTIC SHEETS
* Use PHOSTOXIN.
3 tablets per
25 45kg bags or 1,125kg of sacked grain
OR
15 pellets per
25 45kg bags or 1,125kg of sacked grain.
* Use fumigation on
bags made of jute or fiber. If using
plastic
bags, make sure
the bags are open before fumigation begins.
* Stack the sacks on
the floor on a sheet of plastic, unless the
floor is
concrete. Do not fumigate directly on
the ground
because the soil
will be temporarily poisoned by the fumigant.
If the fumigating
is being done outside, stack the sacks on a
large sheet of
plastic. Make sure the plastic is
larger than
the grain stack on
all sides.
* Take a 500 gauge
plastic sheet. The sheet must be large
enough
to cover the stack
completely and be held to the ground tightly.
If necessary, you
can overlap and tape smaller sheets together
to make a large
enough sheet.
* Check the sheet to
make sure there are no holes in it. You
can do this by
holding it up to the light. Mend any
holes or
tears with tape.
* Spread the right
number of tablets around the sacks.
Spread
the tablets around
so that they do not touch each other.
* IMMEDIATELY COVER
THE STACK WITH THE PLASTIC SHEET.
<FIGURE 42>
51cp53.gif (600x600)
* Make sure the
edges of the sheet are sealed tightly.
Use loose
sand, sand bags,
poles, etc. to hold the sheet down.
* Keep the doors and
windows open if you are fumigating inside
a building.
(This is of course true only when you are
fumigating
under a plastic
sheet inside a building -- not when you
are fumigating an
entire building. In this case, you would
want to close the
doors and windows tightly.)
* Do not let anyone
enter the fumigation area.
* Leave the stack
under fumigation for at least 5 days.
Some
PHOSTOXIN users
prefer to remove the sheet while wearing a
gas mask.
But a gas mask is not necessary, if you
follow
these simple
suggestions: lift the plastic sheet at
one
corner using a
long pole. This means that if there is
any
gas still under
the sheet, it will not hit you in the face
when you lift the
cover. Leave the stack as it is, with
the one corner
lifted up, for 1 or 2 hours.
* Remove the plastic
sheet after 1 or 2 hours if there is
no strong smell.
NOTE: One
characteristic of PHOSTOXIN which makes it relatively safe
for farmers to
use is the very strong smell associated with
PHOSTOXIN. The smell, which
starts being released almost
immediately,
is a good warning to users because the smell is
noticeable
before the gas reaches a poison strength which can
kill or hurt
people.
FUMIGATING STORED GRAIN IN SMALL METAL
CONTAINERS OR SILOS
*
Use 3 tablets or 12 pellets of PHOSTOXIN
for-each 4,400kg.
*
Make sure the emptying chute and filling
holes are sealed. A
thick coating of grease will make a
good seal.
*
Check to make sure bolt holes and seams of a
water-tank bin
are
sealed. You can seal these with bitumen
or melted wax if
you are not
sure they are tight.
*
If the grain level in the bin is no more
than 6m, you can
spread the
tablets only on top of the grain.
*
Spread the tablets as you pour in the grain
only if the grain
can be sealed
up within 4 hours. Remember to place
the tablets
in an open
envelope. In a larger silo, you can
build up the
grain to a
level of 5m and then start putting in tablets.
Continue
putting in grain and tablets until finished.
Start
counting 4
hours from the time the first tablets are put in.
*
Seal the manhole just as soon as all the
grain and tablets are
inside.
*
MAKE SURE THE MANHOLE IS TIGHTLY
CLOSED. USE A THICK COATING
OF GREASE,
WAX, OR CEMENT MORTAR TO SEAL IT.
*
Leave the silo unopened for at least 5
days. If the grain is
not needed,
keep the container sealed until the grain is
needed.
WARNING!
YOU MUST HAVE THE MANHOLE SEALED WITHIN 3 or
4 HOURS OF
ADDING
THE FIRST TABLET OF PHOSTOXIN.
PHOSTOXIN GAS
CAN
KILL.
NOTE: Metal drums
are good containers in which to fumigate grain.
Simply
drop in the
correct number of pellets for the size drum, seal it
tightly,and
wait for 5 days.
STORING IN EARTHEN STRUCTURES
Farmers for thousands of years have been storing grain in
bins and other
containers made of clay.
Earth is available and easy to use.
More recently, there has been interest in improving mud
granaries to make
them more airtight and waterproof.
This is especially important in areas
where insecticides are hard to get and where there is a lot
of rain.
The Pusa Bin, which is discussed here, was
developed in India.
It is made of mud
bricks. The walls
are made by sealing
a layer of plastic sheet between two
layers of mud bricks.
The mud bricks
protect the plastic from holes.
The
plastic keeps air and moisture out.
<FIGURE 43>
51cp57a.gif (437x437)
Advantages:
*
It is an airtight storage
structure.
*
The materials are often available
locally.
Disadvantages:
*
Plastic sheets are sometimes hard to get or
expensive.
*
It must be protected from rain by a separate
roof.
*
Sealing the plastic sheets may be a problem
for a farmer.
THE IMPROVED MUD BLOCK SILO
The other plan presented here is the improved mud
silo, and is based on a plan prepared in Ghana.
VITA artist George Clark provided the illustrations.
<FIGURE 44>
51cp57b.gif (437x437)
The silo is made of mud bricks.
This silo was
improved by plastering and painting the walls.
Plaster is usually composed of cement, lime
and sand. Mud
plasters also can be used. Both
mud and plaster may not stick to the brick walls
for long periods of time.
Mud plaster sticks
better for a time, but heavy rains can wash it
away. Efforts have been
made to mix the mud
with a stabilizer such as cement, or bitumen;
this seems to work.
Also, to make the plaster stick better, small stones can
be added to the mud used to make the bin walls.
Local material also can be used to paint and coat the outer
walls. Some
materials which can be tried on the walls are:
asphalt
resins
organic
oils ox-blood
paints
These coatings last only a year or so, but they are cheap,
available, and
easy to put on. See
Appendix D for information on how to find and use local
materials to waterproof soil construction.
When looking for a coating for an
improved mud silo, the farmer should remember he is looking
for a material
which:
*
is water-repellant.
*
sticks to the walls.
*
lasts long enough so he does not have to
re-apply often.
The improved mud silo presented here has the following
advantages and
disadvantages:
Advantages
*
The materials are cheap.
*
Airtight storage can be achieved or nearly
achieved.
If the
farmer is not sure the silo is airtight, he can
add
insecticide to the grain.
*
The emptying chute allows small amounts of
grain to
be taken
out without unsealing the top of the bin.
*
It can be made in a number of sizes.
Disadvantages
*
It requires regular painting or
whitewashing.
*
It may not be water-tight to prevent grain
rewetting.
Since these earthen structures seem to be more easily made
by small
farmers than the metal bins, the construction plans are
given in more
detail. The mud silo
presentation includes a set of instructions for
use of the silo.
THE INDIAN PUSA BIN
<FIGURE 45>
51cp59.gif (437x437)
The Pusa Bin was developed in India by members of the
Agricultural
Research Institute in New Delhi.
It is relatively simple and inexpensive
to construct and maintain.
This bin is double-walled all the way round
-- including the floor and roof - with a separating layer of
plastic
sheet. The plastic
protects against moisture and keeps air from entering
the stored grain.
Protect the bin from rain.
If the bin is not erected under a shed and it
rains often, it will require too much repair and rebuilding,
and the grain
may get wet and mold.
However, complete shading from the sun is not
necessary because mud walls do not hold heat.
This is one advantage of
a mudblock structure over a metal bin.
In India, rats cause great storage losses.
For this reason, in this plan
the bottom 50cm of the outside wall and the first layer of
the floor slab
are made of fired, or "burned," bricks.
These bricks are harder than
un-fired bricks, like mudblocks, and rats and mice cannot
gnaw through the
bin walls or burrow up underneath the floor to get to the
grain. Another
way to keep out rats and mice is to use sheet metal over
whatever kind of
non-hardened material you use, in the same places.
This plan uses an insulating layer of plastic sheet.
The Pusa Bin is
airtight and waterproof only if the plastic sheet is made
and used
correctly. The
plastic sheet used should be at least 700-gauge thickness,
to resist tears and punctures.
If plastic sheet is not available or if it is too expensive,
some other
form of waterproofing will be needed in warm rainy
areas. Check out what
is available locally.
Tarfelt -- heavy paper impregnated with tar --
can be used.
Experiment with bricks containing cement.
Try painting the
bin with asphalt, coal tar or any other local waterproofing
substance.
Remember, the bottom of the bin must be waterproofed to stop
migration
(seeping of moisture from the earth below.
This plan is for a 2 metric ton bin.
You may vary the size of the bin
to fit your needs.
Make sure you build a strong enough roof support
frame for larger bins.
READ THE INSTRUCTIONS THROUGH BEFORE YOU BEGIN
Tools and Materials
*
mudblocks and mud mortar for the walls.
If you make blocks
10 x 10 x
20cm you will need about 900-1000 of them.
*
wood to make a form for making mudblocks
*
fired, or "burned," bricks,
concrete blocks or bricks of some
other hard,
rat-proof material for the floor and lower 50cm
of the
walls. You will need about 250 of them.
OR
some sheet
metal to cover mudblocks for the same purpose.
You
will need
6-6.5 square meters, allowing for overlapping of
sections. If you use sheet metal
instead of hard bricks, add
250 mudblocks
to the number given above.
*
cement mortar if you use fired bricks
*
about 9 square meters of 700-gauge plastic
sheet for moisture-proofing
the
bin. Or the same area of tar-paper, or
a suitable
amount of
waterproofing material to give a good, thick coating
or several
coatings.
*
a piece of iron bar to heat and seal seams
in the plastic
*
wood or another strong material for making a
roof support
frame
*
sheet metal or plastic pipe for an emptying
spout. Coated
wood will
also work.
*
some wax or similar material to seal some
joints
*
mud for making roof slabs
1. Select a site.
*
Choose a place that is as high and dry as
possible. It is
better to
build up the earth a little for extra protection
against
collecting rainwater. Level and firmly
tamp down
the earth.
*
Make the foundation area at least 1.5 x 2m.
2. Make mudblocks.
*
Use the hard earth beneath the topsoil to
make mudblocks.
If the soil
in your area does not have a high clay content,
you may be
able to mix a little cement in with low-clay soil
to make
good mudblocks.
* A
wood form can make several mudblocks at a time.
*
If you use blocks measuring 10 x 10 x 20cm
you will need about
900-1000
mudblocks. If you are going to use
sheet metal instead
of fired
bricks to protect against rats and mice, add 250 more.
3.
Make the floor of the bin.
*
Lay down a platform of fired bricks or other
hardened bricks,
and cement
mortar, measuring about 120 x 160cm.
OR
Lay down a
layer of sheet metal and place a layer of mudblocks
and mud
mortar on top of it, to the same measurements.
Use
flattened
kerosene tins or any available sheet metal.
Overlap
all the
pieces. Make the outside edges stick
out about 15cm
beyond the
outside edges of the block platform that will be
laid on top
of it.
*
Allow about 1cm thickness of mortar between
either kind of
brick, for
a good bond.
*
Place a layer of plastic over the bricks, or
whatever waterproofing
material
you are using. It should extend a few
centimeters
beyond each edge of the layer of bricks.
*
Lay down a layer of mudblocks and mortar on
top of the plastic,
the same
size as the first brick layer.
<FIGURE 46>
51cp62.gif (486x486)
4. Build the
inner walls.
*
The inner walls may be made entirely of
mudblocks and mortar.
*
Make the outside edges of the walls the same
as the outside
edges of
the floor.
*
Build an emptying spout into the first
layer. Form something
like
galvanized tin into a tube about 9 or 10cm in diameter,
or use a
plastic pipe the same size. Fit one end
flush against
the inside
of the wall. Make it long enough to
extend past
where the
outside edge of the outer wall will be.
You may
tilt it
downwards slightly towards the outside for easier exit.
Mortar it
into the wall. You will need a
tight-fitting cap
on the end
of the spout.
*
Lay the blocks so that each one crosses over a joint between
blocks in
the layer below it. This will make the
walls stronger.
*
Build the walls to a total height of about
160cm -- but wait
until
installing the roof support frame (next step) before
putting in
the final layer.
<FIGURE 47>
51cp63a.gif (486x486)
5. Install a roof
support frame.
*
Use wood that is naturally termite proof, or
coat it with
something
to protect it against these and other insects.
Metal or
reinforced concrete bars can be used, but they will
be more
expensive. The roof must have strong
support: use
the best
available material.
*
Use four pieces as long as the distance
between the outside
edges of the inner wall -- two pieces
about 120cm and two about
160cm. Wood
should have at least a 5 x 5cm cross section.
*
Form the frame in a double-cross
pattern. Interlock wood joints.
One of the
corner spaces should
measure
about 50 x 50cm, for a
manhole
entrance.
<FIGURE 48>
51cp63b.gif (486x486)
*
Position the frame on top of the
next-to-last layer of blocks in
inner
wall. Raise the ends up
on some
mortar so the top surface
of the
frame will be at the same
height as
the top surfaces of the
final layer
of mudblocks.
<FIGURE 49>
51cp64.gif (486x486)
*
Mortar the frame and the blocks for the top
layer of the wall
into
place. Make a smooth top surface on the
walls.
6. Build the
inner roof.
*
Make mud slabs 5cm thick for the inner roof.
*
You may make one or more to cover each space
in the support
frame,
depending on how strong the slabs are.
They will have
to support
another layer of mud slabs the same thickness when
the bin is
complete. It would be best to extend
them to the
outside
edges of the inner wall for firm support.
Sections of
tightly
stretched wire mesh fastened to the support frame
would
provide extra support for the slabs.
*
Position the slabs on mortar applied to the
support frame and
the tops of
the walls. Leave the 50 x 50cm manhole
open.
*
Fill any spaces between the slabs with
mortar.
7. Plaster the
inside.
*
Plaster the insides of the walls and the
roof, and the surface
of the
floor with a smooth coating of mud or mortar.
This will
leave no
place for insects or dirt to lodge.
8. Make and
install a plastic cover.
*
Measure the outside dimensions of each of
the four walls and
the roof.
*
Cut pieces of plastic sheet to cover each of
the five surfaces.
Each piece
should be cut a little larger than the surface
which it
will cover -- at least 5cm overhang on each edge.
The bottom
edges of the sides must reach a few centimeters
beyond the
plastic sticking out from the floor.
*
Fasten the pieces together in a box
shape. Keep in mind the
right
arrangement of pieces so that when the cover is placed
over the
bin it will fit.
*
Seal the edges of the plastic together with
a heated piece of
iron
bar. Lay one edge over another and pass
the iron over
them.
Make sure the iron is not too hot:
it should not melt
the
plastic, but just seal it together.
Make sure you have a
good
seal. Practice making seams on small
scraps of plastic
first.
Find the right temperature for the iron.
<FIGURE 50>
51cp65.gif (486x486)
*
Make sure there are no rough edges of blocks
or mortar on the
walls or
roof that will damage the plastic.
*
Pull the cover all the way down over the inner
structure of the
bin.
If it is too small you will have to re-make
it; you may
be able to
re-work the seams. It does not matter
if the cover
is too
large.
*
Cut a hole in the plastic around the
emptying spout. Seal it
to the
spout with something like soft wax.
This should make
an air- and
water-tight seal.
*
Seal the bottom edges of the wall pieces to
the edges of the
plastic in
the floor.
*
Cut a diagonal slit through the plastic
across the manhole.
9. Build the
outer walls.
<FIGURE 51>
51cp66.gif (486x486)
*
Begin the walls from the earth
foundation. Build them right
up against
the plastic over the inner walls.
*
Use fired bricks or other hardened bricks
and cement mortar for
the lower
50cm of the outer walls
OR
Use mudblocks
and mud mortar instead, building them up on the
metal sticking
out from under the floor. Cover them to
a height
of 50cm with
overlapping pieces of sheet metal.
Mortar or
otherwise
securely fasten the metal in place.
Make a good joint
with the metal
sticking out from under the floor.
*
Continue the outer walls with mudblocks and
mud mortar.
Build them
up to the top surface of the inner roof.
If
there is
any difference in height, fill with mortar.
10. Build the
outer roof.
*
Place 5cm-thick mud slabs over the plastic
sheet on top of
the inner
roof, mortaring them in place, out to the outside
edges of
the outer walls. They may be any size
across, as
long as
they are strong.
*
Do not cover the manhole.
Make a separate mud slab to fit
over it.
*
Fill in spaces between the slabs with
mortar.
11. Finish the
bin.
*
Plaster the outer roof and sides with a
smooth layer of mud
or mortar.
*
Let the entire structure dry
thoroughly. This will take about
thirty
days. Leave the manhole cover off
during the drying.
*
A coat of whitewash put on after drying
would help reflect the
sun's heat
and add further waterproofing.
*
Build a shelter over the Pusa Bin to protect
if from the rains.
Make it at
least a half meter larger than the bin on all sides,
and high
enough to give plenty of room to load grain and get
in and out
the manhole. There is no need to
enclose the sides
of the
shelter.
12. Prepare and
use the bin for storage.
*
When the bin is dry, clean the inside
thoroughly. Light a small,
smoky fire
to drive off insects. Take both of
these steps each
time you
get ready to load an empty bin.
*
Dusting the inside surfaces of the bin with
insecticide, and also
the grain,
will protect the grain better.
*
Cover the manhole when you have put your
grain into the bin.
Seal it
with extra mud or mortar for more protection.
*
Always close the cover of the emptying spout
tightly after using.
*
Check the grain periodically.
*
Store only grain which is dried to 12-13%
moisture content in
the Pusa
Bin.
IMPROVED MUDBLOCK SILO
READ THE
INSTRUCTIONS THROUGH BEFORE YOU BEGIN
Tools and Materials
*
Rocks about 20-25cm across for the
foundation of the silo.
*
Flat rocks, as wide across as possible, to
lay across the
foundation.
*
Sand for concrete and mortar.
*
Small stones to mix in with the concrete.
*
2 bags of cement.
*
Trowel or a similar tool to work the mortar
and plaster
mixes.
*
Different sizes of wood boards. The sizes
are shown in
each part of the instructions where you
will use them.
*
Earth to make mudblocks.
*
Nails (1.8-2.4cm long).
*
Pitch, tar, or other waterproofing
material.
Select a Site
*
Find some solid ground on which
to build
the silo.
*
High ground is best.
*
Make sure the silo is built in
a place
where the ground underneath
it will not
wash away
during a
rainy season.
<FIGURE 52>
51cp69.gif (486x486)
1. Make a Form to
Mold Mudblocks
*
Use wood boards about 2.5cm thick.
*
You will need:
2 boards 46cm x 10cm
4 boards 10cm x 15cm
*
Line the 2 long boards up side by side.
*
Nail the 4 small boards crossways between
them. Place the
small
boards so that the distance between the 2 long boards
is 15cm.
Leave 10cm space between each of the
small boards.
Place the
first small board about 2.5cm in from the ends
of the long
boards. This should leave about the same amount
of space on
the other end.
*
Make handles.
Use 2 small pieces of wood 2.5cm thick that
are 15cm
long and about 5cm wide. Nail one across each
end of the
box.
2. Make Mudblocks
*
Mix earth and water to make the same kind of
mud you use to
build any
building.
*
Wet the form.
*
Fill the form with mud.
*
Pack the mud tightly into
the form.
*
Take any extra mud off the
top.
*
Lift the form carefully off
the
mudblocks.
*
Dry the blocks in the sun.
*
Make about 300 blocks.
<FIGURE 53>
51cp70.gif (587x587)
3. Make Frame
"A" for the Outside of the Topslab
*
To make this topslab you must make 4 wood
frames. Later you will pour
concrete into
these
frames.
<FIGURE 54>
51cp71a.gif (437x437)
*
Prepare:
2 boards, 2.5cm x 5cm x 1.2m
2
boards, 2.5cm x 5cm x 1.1m
4
boards, 2.5cm x 5cm x 51cm
*
Nail the 4 longer boards together.
Butt
the ends of
the 1.1m boards up against the ends of the 1.2m
boards. When the frame is lying
on the ground,the 2.5cm edges
of the
boards should be facing up.
*
Nail these cross pieces in place from the
inside. The 2.5cm
edges of
these boards should also be facing up when the frame
is lying on
the ground.
*
Cut the ends of the 4 short boards at a 45
degree angle.
Then they
will fit easily across the corners of the large
square
frame.
<FIGURE 55>
51cp71b.gif (600x600)
4. Make Frame
"B" for the Manhole
*
Prepare:
2 boards, 2.5 x 8cm x 45cm
2
boards, 2.5 x 8cm x 40cm
*
Cut part of the face off each end of the 4
boards.
This will
make a slanted face.
*
Nail the 4 boards together.
Face the slanted sides outward.
Butt the
ends of the 40cm boards up against the
ends of the
45cm boards.
<FIGURE 56>
51cp72.gif (486x486)
5. Make Frame
"C" for the Collar
*
Prepare:
2 boards 2.5cm x 2.5cm x 53cm
1
board, 2.5cm x 2.5cm x 56cm
1
board, 2.5cm x 2.5cm x 66 cm
*
Nail the 4 boards together. Butt the ends of
the 56cm board
up against
an end of each of the 53cm boards. Butt
the other
ends of the
56cm boards up against the 66cm board.
Leave 5cm
of the 66cm
board sticking out on one end.
<FIGURE 57>
51cp73a.gif (486x486)
6. Make Frame
"D" for the Manhole Cover
*
You will need:
2 boards, 2.5cm x 5cm x 61cm
2 boards, 2.5 x 5cm x 56cm
*
Nail the 4 boards together.
Butt the ends of the 2 shorter
boards up
against the ends of the 2 longer boards.
<FIGURE 58>
51cp73b.gif (486x486)
7. Mix the Concrete
and Pour it into the Wood Frames
*
Mix the concrete in a proportion of:
1 part cement (out of the bag)
2 parts sand
3 parts small stones
Remember to
mix the dry ingredients first. Then add
the water,
a small
amount at a time until the mixture is correct.
*
Cover a flat place on the ground with empty
cement bags or
sheets of
heavy paper or plastic. These will keep the concrete
from
sticking to the ground.
*
Wet the empty bags or whatever you are
using. This will keep
the
concrete from sticking to them.
*
Put Frame A on top of these.
*
Place Frame B in the middle of Frame A.
Make sure each side of
Frame B is
the same distance from each side of Frame A.
The
thin edges
of Frame B should be facing down.
*
Begin pouring concrete mix into the space
between Frame A and
Frame
B. The open space inside of Frame B
will be the manhole.
*
When you have poured in about half the
thickness all the way
around, lay
in the metal rods.
*
Pour the rest of the concrete mix over the
rods.
*
Make sure the rods are in the concrete.
They should not show
through the
concrete. If you do this right, the
rods will help
make the
concrete much stronger.
<FIGURE 59>
51cp74.gif (486x486)
*
Level the concrete even with the top of
Frame A. Frame B will
stick up
2.5cm above the wet concrete.
*
Place Frame C around Frame B on top of the
wet concrete. The
space
between the two frames must be the same on every side.
*
Pour concrete mix into the space between
Frame B and Frame C.
Make the
top of the concrete level with the tops of the 2 frames.
This will
form a collar for the manhole cover to rest on.
*
You are now ready to use Frame D to make a
separate piece. This
will be the
manhole cover.
*
Place Frame D on some empty cement bags or
sheets of heavy paper
or plastic.
*
Wet the empty bags or whatever you are
using.
*
Pour concrete mix into Frame D.
Level off the top of the concrete
to the top
of the frame.
*
Leave all the frames around the concrete for
at least 3 days.
The
concrete will become even stronger if you can leave it for
several
more days.
*
While the concrete is drying, put water on
it 3 times each day
at morning,
noon, and night. Putting water on the
concrete like
this will
make it harden evenly and not crack.
This is called
"curing."
*
When the concrete is
Cured," remove the wood frames.
Remove
them
carefully, so you can use them again.
<FIGURE 60>
51cp75.gif (486x486)
8. Make the
foundation
*
Draw a circle on the ground where you want
to build the silo.
Make the
circle 1.2m across.
*
Place the 20cm or 25cm rocks around the
circle just inside the
edge, and
inside the circle. You may fill in the
larger spaces
with
smaller rocks to give more support. The
air spaces between
the rocks
will let air move through the foundation and will
keep
moisture from collecting.
*
Place flat rocks on top of the circle of
rocks. This will make
the top
more level.
*
If you cannot find good flat rocks, you may
use concrete blocks.
Place them
the same way as you would the flat rocks.
Place
them so
they come right up to the edge of the circle of rocks,
or overhang
slightly.
*
Make some mortar by mixing 1 part cement and
5 parts sand together.
Add enough
water to make a workable paste.
*
Put mortar over the flat rocks or
blocks. Fill all open spaces.
Make the
surface as smooth as you can. This will
cement the
top of the
foundation into a solid piece.
*
Find the center of the foundation.
*
Mark off a 91cm diameter circle from the
center. This is the
inside
diameter of the silo.
9. Build the Grain
Chute (Optional)
*
Use hard wood about 2.5cm thick.
*
Prepare:
1 board, 2.5 x 15 x 30cm -- for the top of the chute.
1
board, 2.5 x 15)(25cm - for the bottom of the chute.
2
boards, 2.5 x 10cm that are 25cm long on one edge and
30cm long on the opposite edge.
These are
for the sides of the chute.
1
board, 2.5cm thick, at least 13cm wide,and 20cm or
25cm long.
This is for the sliding door
in the chute.
*
Place the edge of the sliding door board on
one of the side boards
5cm in from
the short straight end. Trace the width
of this edge
onto the
side board. Make a groove.
Remove the wood between the
2 lines you
have traced to a depth of about 6mm.
Make each
surface of
the groove as smooth and as straight as you can.
*
Repeat this process on the other side
board. The groove should
be in the
same place on each side board.
<FIGURE 61>
51cp77.gif (600x600)
*
Cut the top board into two pieces.
One piece should be 5cm
long.
This will fit the space between the front of
the chute
and the
beginning of the groove for the sliding door.
Match the
edge of the remaining piece with the far end
of the groove. Cut
the length
of the top piece as needed to match the length of the
side piece.
*
Nail the top and sides and bottom of the
chute together.
*
Trim the width of the sliding door board so
that it will slide
through the
opening in the top of the chute down the grooves.
*
You may have to trim the long sides of the
opening too if the
sliding
door is too thick. The sliding door should
move freely
up and down
but should not be too loose.
*
Cut the bottom edge of the sliding door at
an angle so that only
a thin edge
will touch the bottom of the chute.
This edge will
face the
outside of the silo. This will make it
easier to keep
grains from
lodging under the closed door which might let air
and
moisture and insects into the silo.
*
Paint the chute and the sliding door with
pitch or tar or some
like
material to protect it from insects and moisture.
*
Drive a few nails into the chute near its
slanted end. They
should
stick out a couple of centimeters. The
nails will
help anchor
the chute into the walls of the silo.
10. Begin the Walls
*
Make mortar the same way you did for the top
of the foundation.
It is
better to mix smaller amounts until you know how fast you
can use
it. Do not use mortar that has gotten
too dry because
it will not
be as strong.
*
Lay down a layer of mortar all around the
inside edge of the
circle you
have drawn on the top of the foundation.
Make it
about 10cm
wide.
*
Place about 18 mudblocks in a circle on top
of the mortar. Leave
a space for
the chute, including the nails that are sticking out
from it.
*
Place the chute in the space you have
left. The slanted end of
the chute
should be even with the inside surfaces of the blocks
next to it and straight up and down.
This will make the
chute tilt
down away from the silo wall.
<FIGURE 62>
51cp78.gif (486x486)
*
Fill the spaces between the mudblocks and
the spaces between the
mudblocks
and the chute with mortar.
* Lay
down a layer of mortar on top of the circle of mudblocks.
*
Place the second layer of mudblocks on top
of the first. Place
each block
so that it lays across the space between the blocks
in the
first layer. This will make the wall
stronger. You
may have to
cut blocks to fit next to the chute. Do
not leave
a large
space that will have to be filled with mortar next to
the chute.
*
Continue putting on mortar and mudblocks in
the same way until
you have
laid down 4 layers of mudblocks altogether.
11. Make a Slanted
Floor
*
Use sand or soil to make a slanted
floor. This will help the
grain move
towards and out of the chute. If the
chute is not
used, this slant will not be needed.
<FIGURE 63>
51cp79.gif (486x486)
*
Pack the sand or soil down
hard.
*
The floor should be 30 cm
above the
bottom of the
chute at
the place opposite
the
chute. The floor near
the chute
should be even
with the
bottom of the
chute.
*
Make a mix of plaster.
Use
1 part
cement (out of the bag)
to 3 parts
clean sand (mix dry).
Use enough
water to make a
smooth mix.
Do not make it
too watery.
*
Plaster the slanted floor and
the inside
of the mudblock wall.
Make sure
you cover all the
surfaces
completely.
*
Plaster carefully around the
chute.
*
Smooth the plaster well after you put it on.
This will make cleaning
easier and
will leave fewer spots for insects to hide in.
*
Keep the plaster damp until it is hard.
*
Put loose sand on the floor after it is
dry. This will keep
drops of
mortar and plaster from sticking to the floor as
you
continue working.
12. Finish the Walls
*
Tie a string to a small stone.
You will use this to check
the
straightness of the walls as you build them.
*
Put down 3 or 4 layers of blocks.
Use mortar and arrange the
blocks the
same way you did for the first 4 layers.
*
Hold the string at the top end, with the
stone hanging down
from it at
the other end.
*
Hold the string out about 5cm from the top
of the silo wall.
The silo
wall is straight if the distance between the string
and the
wall is the same from the top to the bottom.
*
Continue adding layers of blocks the same
way as you did before.
Check every
3 or 4 layers for straightness.
*
The finished silo wall should have about 14
layers of blocks.
*
Mix some plaster the same way you did for
the slanted floor
and the
inside of the first 4 layers of mudblocks.
*
Plaster the inside and the outside of the
silo wall. Remember
to put the
plaster on very smooth.
13. Place the
Topslab
*
When the mortar and the plaster in the silo
wall are dry and
strong, you
are ready to place the topslab on top of the silo.
*
Make sure that Frames A, B,and C are removed
from the concrete
topslab.
*
You will need people to help you put the
topslab in place.
*
Mix some fresh mortar (1 part cement, 5
parts sand, and water).
*
Place a layer of mortar all around on top of
the silo wall.
*
Put the topslab down on top of the
mortar. Many people can
lift the
topslab together. One person can stand
inside and
help.
He can get out through the manhole.
*
Remove the cover from Frame D and place.
<FIGURE 64>
51cp81.gif (486x486)
14. Whitewash the
Silo
*
Apply a coating of whitewash to all the
outside surfaces of
the silo.
The manhole cover and all areas of the
topslab and
walls
should be covered.
*
Whitewash closes small openings in the
cement.
*
Whitewash helps keep the silo cooler
inside. It is important
to keep the
grain cool and dry.
*
Whitewash will also make your silo look
nice.
HOW TO USE
YOUR MUDBLOCK SILO
<FIGURE 65>
51cp83.gif (486x486)
*
Put only clean, dry grain into your silo.
*
Wet grain will rot in the closed silo.
It will
get moldy.
*
Wet grain will make the silo wet.
The silo walls
will crack
if they get wet. Your grain will be
no good.
*
Dry your grain in the sun.
*
Keep the grain in the sun or in the dryer
until
it is dry.
*
Test the grain when you think it is
dry. Put
one grain
between your teeth. Dry grain is very
hard to
break with your teeth.
*
Remember, if storing maize -- put kernels
into the silo right
after you
remove them from the cobs. Do not let
maize stay on
the cobs
after you remove the maize from the drying place.
*
When the grain is dry, take the cover off
the manhole. Put the
grain into
the silo right away. Fill the silo to
the top.
*
Stir the grain in the silo with a large
stick. This helps the
grains
settle.
*
It is good to add an insect poison to the
grain before you close
the
silo. Insects are always present in
grain. Insect larvae
live inside
the kernels where they can not be seen.
Talk to
your
extension worker about what poison to use and how to use it.
*
Remember, poisons can kill animals and
people. Do not use them
before you
talk to an extension worker.
*
Put the cover on the manhole as soon as
possible. Flying
insects can
enter the grain if the cover is not on the manhole.
*
Put mud all around the cover so nothing can
get into any cracks
between the cover and the manhole.
*
Make sure the sliding door in the wooden
chute closes tightly.
*
Make sure there are no cracks around the
chute.
*
Put mud over the chute to protect it from
rodents and insects.
*
Keep the area around the silo clean.
Rats do not like to
live where
it is clean.
*
Check your silo often.
Put new plaster on any cracks you
find.
It is important to find the cracks and put
plaster
on them
right away.
*
Keep the silo white.
The white color keeps the silo cool.
Put on new
whitewash when the silo needs it.
*
You may have to use the chute to take out
small amounts of
grain to
sell or eat. Make sure you close the
sliding door
carefully. Do not leave it
open. Reseal it with mud.
If
theft is a
problem, the chute can be omitted and grain will
be removed
from the top of the silo.
*
Do not leave grains scattered on the ground.
These grains
will
attract insects and rats.
*
When you empty the silo, make sure all the
grain is out.
Grain left
in an empty silo will attract insects and rodents.
*
Clean the silo well before you fill it again.
You can burn
a small
fire made of grass inside the silo.
This kind of
fire makes
a lot of smoke. The smoke and heat from
the
fire kill
insects and insect eggs.
*
Sweep out the ashes, dust, and old grain.
*
When your silo is clean and repaired, you are ready to put
the next
crop of grain into the silo.
FERROCEMENT FOR GRAIN STORAGE
Materials in this section have been adapted from articles in
Ferrocement:
Applications in Developing Countries., National Academy of
Sciences,
Washington, D. C., Feb., 1973; and from "Hermetic
Storage of Rice for
Thai Farmers by Smith, Boon-Long, Loo, Nutalaya and
Pataragetvit, Thai
Journal of Agricultural Science, July, 1971.
Ferrocement is a kind of reinforced concrete.
Ferrocement is made of
wire mesh, sand, water, and cement.
It is strong and durable.
Generally,
ferrocement structures are from 1cm to 5cm in
thickness. The reinforcement
is layers of steel mesh with thin steel reinforcing bars
placed
between the layers.
Ferrocement has been used as a material for building
boats for many years.
Now ferrocement is being used with increasing success
for grain storage in a number of countries.
Ferrocement is appropriate for building structures in many
areas of the
world:
*
The materials to make it are usually
available all
over the
world.
*
It can be made into almost any shape.
Therefore, an
improved
structure can be made which looks very much like
the old
one.
*
It is cheaper than a metal bin, in some
places.
*
Building with ferrocement does not require a
lot of
equipment
or machinery.
*
It can be built almost anywhere, even in
isolated locations.
*
It does not take very long for workers to
learn to use
ferrocement.
*
It needs little maintenance after
completion. Repairs,
if
necessary, are easy to make.
MATERIALS FOR
FERROCEMENT
Reinforcing Mesh
Many kinds of mesh will work as long as the mesh can be
shaped easily (is
flexible). The mesh
will have to be more or less flexible depending upon
the shape of the final ferrocement product.
If the ferrocement is to be
a rounded structure, the mesh has to be more flexible than
it would have
to be for a straight-sided container.
For grain storage uses, chicken wire can be used as
reinforcing mesh.
Chicken wire is usually available, though in some areas it
can be expensive.
In cases where chicken wire or wire mesh is not available,
the mesh can
be made by using straight wire.
This allows the user to make the size
mesh he wants, and it is cheaper to buy coils of straight
wire than it
is to buy mesh. The
mesh does not need welding; either galvanized or
non-galvanized wire can be used.
Cement, Sand, and Water
Almost any ordinary cement can be used.
The sand should not be too fine
(have too many tiny pieces).
If there are pieces of dirt, leaves, or
other organic matter in the sand, wash the sand before using
it. The
water also must be free from silt and other dirt.
These materials weaken
the ferrocement if they are left in the sand and water.
BUILDING WITH FERROCEMENT
There are three areas in ferrocement construction which are
particularly
important:
Mixing the Mortar
A general mix is 1 part cement to 2 parts sand.
Only enough water is
added to make a pastelike mixture.
Experience will be the best way to
find out the best consistency for the mortar.
Machines can be used for
mixing, but hand mixing the mortar works very well and may
cost less.
Putting the mortar on the wire mesh
Before mixing the mortar, the mesh structure should have
been formed in
the shape desired.
Then, using fingers and trowels, push the mortar into
the mesh structure.
Some kind of vibrating movement helps push the mortar
into the mesh and packs it in better.
For grain storage purposes, just put
a handle on a piece of wood and create a vibrating movement.
When placing the mortar, there are two important points to
keep in mind:
you must completely cover the steel wire mesh with mortar so
that the
steel cannot rust and lose its strength; at the same time,
the wire mesh
should be as near the surface as possible.
This means that the covering
over the wire mesh must be thin but complete.
Curing the Mortar
Ferrocement must not dry too quickly.
It should be kept moist for at
least seven days. It
also must be protected from sun and wind.
Both
too much sun and too much wind will dry the ferrocement too
quickly:
ferrocement must dry slowly to be strong.
FERROCEMENT FOR GRAIN STORAGE
There are many things about ferrocement which make it good
for grain
storage; it is particularly good in areas of the world where
high temperatures
and damp air cause grain to rot and mold easily.
(However, if wire
is very costly, and cement powder relatively inexpensive,
the farmer may
want to build a cement stave silo.)
Ferrocement:
*
can provide watertight storage, if treated.
*
can be made to provide airtight storage,
and, therefore,
insecticides are not needed.
*
does not heat the stored grain as much as
metal bins do.
Disadvantages
One major disadvantage to ferrocement at the moment seems to
be that the
use of ferrocement for grain storage is still new, and
knowledge of the
technique is not widely available.
Also, for the small farmer, ferrocement
is relatively expensive.
AN OVERVIEW OF GRAIN STORAGE USES FOR FERROCEMENT
This section on ferrocement provides an introduction to
ferrocement as
a building material for grain storage uses.
It includes descriptions of
ferrocement bins and a ferrocement lining for underground
storage pits.
The Thai Ferrocement Silo (Thailo), which can hold 3.5 tons
of paddy rice,
is presented in some detail.
Ferrocement has been used to make water tanks for a number
of years. But
ferrocement is still being tested for its grain storage
value and much of
this knowledge is still in the hands of designers and
testers. Hopefully,
by reading the above general material on ferrocement, and,
then, by
reading the following descriptions of possible grain storage
uses, you
will be able to form some ideas as to whether or not
ferrocement is worthy
of more investigation for use in your area.
THAI FERROCEMENT SILO (THAILO)
Tools and Materials
*
Cement
1,000kg
*
Sand
1,725kg
*
Aggregate
965kg (used in the base)
*
Mortar plasticizer
2kg
*
Sealant for base
5kg
*
Paint
0.75kg
*
Chicken wire
2 Rolls
*
No. 2 rod
80m
*
Water pipe (19mm dia.)
32m
These are materials available in Thailand; they may not be
easy to find in
other places. But
other materials may be substituted. For
example, the
silo has been built using bamboo poles instead of water
pipe. The pipe was
substituted to prevent termite infestation.
If it is not clear that termites
will be a problem, experimenting with other available
materials will be
needed. Using
bamboo, means the walls will be much thicker -- 5 to 7.5cm --,
requiring more cement.
Walls using water pipe are only 4cm thick.
The sealant is to help protect the silo in areas where
flooding is a
problem. Any kind of
asphalt seal should provide protection.
1. Build the Base
*
The base is saucer shaped and can be built
on a pile of hard
earth.
This should be done if the area has seasonal
flooding
or very
heavy rains. The base can be changed
easily to fit
different
ground conditions.
*
Put a sealing mortar on the earthen base and
apron. Make the
mortar
using, by weight: 1 part cement
3 parts sand
0.6 parts water
*
Lay one layer of concrete over the apron and
base. Make it
5cm thick.
*
Reinforce this concrete layer with 19mm wire
mesh. (Chicken
wire can be
used) after you have laid down half the thickness
of
concrete. Use this concrete mix, by
weight:
1 part cement
1.5 parts sand
2 parts aggregate
0.33 parts water.
*
Let this layer of concrete harden and water
it 3 times a day.
Keep the
concrete damp for 7 days. This lets the
concrete
harden slowly,
and the concrete will, therefore, be stronger.
Treat the
concrete with an asphalt seal. In
Thailand, a brand
called
Flintkote is used in 2 coats.
(Flintkote is simply a
bitumen
emulsion). The first coat is mixed with
water -- 1
part
Flintkote, 3 parts water. The second
layer contains no
water.
*
Put down another layer of 5cm thick concrete
with mesh reinforcement
(about midway
in its thickness). This time put the
concrete
over the base,
but not over the apron. The mesh should
stick out of
the concrete to the end of the apron.
It will
be used later
as more reinforcement for the walls.
<FIGURE 66>
51cp89a.gif (300x600)
2. Build the Wall
Support Structure
*
The walls slope inward towards the top in a
cone shape. The
opening at
the top of the cone is the entrance, or manhole.
*
Build a wooden "tree" to support
the wall
structure until it is
finished. The tree should stand
about 2m
high with a circular
platform at
the top.
<FIGURE 67>
51cp89b.gif (353x353)
*
Extend steel water pipes or whatever
reinforcing materials are used
from the base
to the tree platform at regular intervals.
These
pipes, called
struts, form the support for the wire mesh.
<FIGURE 68>
51cp90a.gif (437x437)
*
Bring mesh up from the base and fasten to
struts with
wire.
*
Wire horizontal hoops of reinforcing rod to
the struts.
*
Put one layer of wire mesh on the outside
surface and
one layer
of wire mesh on the inside.
*
Fasten mesh, reinforcing rod, and struts together with
short
pieces of wire threaded through the wall and
back.
Tie by twisting the ends with pliers.
<FIGURE 69>
51cp90b.gif (486x486)
3. Apply Mortar
*
Hand mix the mortar in the following
proportions, by weight:
1 part cement
1.75 parts sand
Enough
water to make a thick paste.
*
Work the mortar into the mesh structure
using trowels and
hands.
*
The wall thickness inside and out should be
about 4cm (if
using steel
pipes) and 5-7.5cm (if using bamboo).
4. Make the cover or
Top
Here are 2 choices
for the top.
1.
Ferrocement outer cover with gaskets of
rubber which act
as
airtight seals. This can be made on
site or erected
before
cementing the walls.
An inner
lid can be used. This lid can be an
aluminum trash
can
lid. If this inner lid is used, place a
polystyrene (plastic)
lining
between the grain and the trash can lid to insulate
against
heat and prevent moisture condensation.
2.
Build a small piece of formwork supported by
wires attached
to the
tops of the steel pipes which form the struts for
the wire
mesh. Or long nails can be driven into
the wooden
platform
which supports the struts. These nails
are bent
up to
shape a form.
The
topseal consists of 2 parts:
*
Aluminum lid with polystyrene insert and a tubular
ring of
plastic placed between the lid and the wall.
*
A piece of sheet metal screwed to the top
with a
sealing
gasket.
Some General Notes on Ferrocement Silos
IMPORTANT: Do not
mix too much water into the mortar and concrete
mixtures.
IMPORTANT: Wet the
finished ferrocement 3 times per day for 7 days.
Cover the
silo with moist sacks and make sure the cover
is kept
wet. It is very important not to let
the sun and
wind dry
the silo too quickly. Slow drying,
called curing,
gives
cement its durability and strength.
*
Painting the silo with chlorinated
rubber-base paint, coal
tar or bitumen
should be done to make sure it is completely
airtight and
watertight.
* Fill the finished
silo with water for one week if you wish to
test it. Water is
heavier than the stored grain. If there
are cracks or weak places they will leak.
Make repairs
as needed. The silo
must be dried for 4-6 weeks particularly
if it has been filled with water.
Remember that the shape
and size of the ferrocement silo can be changed to fit your
own needs.
FERROCEMENT-LINED UNDERGROUND PITS
This material is adapted from Ferrocement:
Applications in Developing
Countries, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C.,
Feb., 1973.
The illustration is from a report prepared by R. A.
Boxall for the United
Kingdom Committee of the Freedom from Hunger Campaign and
Christian Aid,
1971-72.
A traditional pit can be made into an air and watertight
grain storage
container by using ferrocement to line the pit.
Ferrocement linings work
even in pits built in very wet ground.
The cost of this pit was $20.00
(U. S. currency) in 1972.
<FIGURE 70>
51cp93.gif (600x600)
Here is an outline of the construction process.
1. Clean the pit
*
Remove trash
*
Make sure walls are smooth and free of
termites.
*
Apply poison to kill termites if necessary.
2. Prepare the floor
of the pit
*
Lay down a 10mm layer of hardcore.
*
Lay a layer of concrete on top of the
hardcore. Use a
concrete
mix like the one given for the base of the
Thailo
grain store pits.
3. Make the mortar
*
Mix well one part cement and 3 parts sand.
*
Add as little water as possible to make a
paste.
4. Line the walls
*
Use hands and trowels to put a 2.5-3cm layer
of mortar to
the walls.
*
Place wire mesh reinforcement, or chicken
wire on the surface
of the
mortar where it is wet.
*
See waterproofing material before placing
the second layer
of
mortar. The other method of
waterproofing is cheaper,
requires less
labor and may work well depending on the
ground
water level. This method uses a single
layer of
bitumen
between the two cement layers. If you
choose this
method,
Step 6 is not necessary.
*
Put another layer of mortar on top of the
chicken wire.
5. Cure the lining
*
Keep the walls and inside of the pit damp
for at least 5 days.
Seven days
is better.
*
Do not let the pit dry out quickly!
6. Waterproof the
lining There are 2 methods. Here is the
most expensive.
*
Brush off any loose concrete with a wire
brush.
*
Use a stiff brush to put on a first coat of
Bitumen Emulsion.
This first
coat is diluted -- 1 volume of emulsion to 1 volume
of water.
*
Make sure the emulsion gets worked deeply
into the lining.
*
Let this first, or priming coat, dry.
*
Apply a layer of undiluted Bitumen Emulsion
and let dry.
*
Mix 1 volume of water to I volume of cement
to 10 volumes
Bitumen
Emulsion and brush this over the entire inside of
the pit.
7. Make the-lip
*
Build up the mouth of the pit using stones.
*
Mix concrete of the type used at the bottom
of the pit and
lay a
sloping lip at the mouth of the pit as shown in the
drawing. Drain pipes can be used
to carry water even
further
away.
*
Let dry well.
8. Seal the pit
*
A traditional lid can be used.
*
A metal or concrete lid which is sealed with
bitumen makes
a very
airtight storage container.
*
If you choose to use a metal lid place old
cloths or sacks
between the
top of the grain and the cover. This
cloth will
absorb any
moisture which forms on the metal lid.
OTHER FERROCEMENT GRAIN STRUCTURES
From a VITA Volunteer in India come the following
ferrocement specifications
and drawings. Since
these grain bins are presented in sizes
suitable for use by small farmers, they are included here to
illustrate
further the ranges of ferrocement shapes and
applications. These plans
were proposed by the Keetaram Agricultural Services, Pvt.,
Ltd., of New
Delhi, India.
Ferrocement Grain Bin #1 (CB-1)
Useful for seed storage or where smaller batches of various
types or
qualities of grain have to be preserved.
For indoor use, although the
design will permit long exposure to sunshine and rain
without deterioration
of the contents.
The bin has an internal diameter of 750mm and is 1 metre
tall. A large
manhole, 600mm in diameter, is used for loading and
unloading of grain.
This manhole is closed by means of a loose fitting over
which is equipped
with a facility for padlocking.
The bin can be easily sealed by caulking
wet clay all around the cover.
Since the bin will be placed directly
on the floor no opening is considered necessary at the
bottom, since this
will make the extraction of grain at ground level a very
tedious operation.
The height of 1 metre makes it easy for the grain to removed
from the top
manhole.
The walls of the bin are 12mm thick and have a smooth
internal finish
preventing lodging of any bacterial infestation.
All corners and edges
are rounded off for the same reason and to facilitate
cleaning of the
bin before loading.
This bin holds 0.4 cubic meters.
It will store 350kgs of wheat.
The
bin weighs about 230kg when empty and 580kg when full.
<FIGURE 71>
51cp96.gif (353x353)
Ferrocement Grain Bin #2 (CB-2)
This has an internal diameter of 1,000mm and a height of
1,500mm. A manhole
diameter is provided at the top for loading of grain.
The manhole
can be closed by means of a loosely fitting manhole cover
with a padlocking
arrangement. At the
bottom of the bin a square opening is provided and
this is fitted on with nuts and bolts on to the recessed
enclosure of the
opening. This cover
will be normally opened once a year, when the bin
has been emptied and is to be thoroughly cleaned before
fumigation.
For unloading grain, there is a 8cm diameter sheet metal
screw conveyor
fitted over the cover.
This is manually operated and is estimated to
discharge at the rate of about 15kg per minute by manually
turning the
conveyor at 60 RPM.
The capacity of this bin is 1.4 cubic meters.
It will store 1,000kg of
wheat. The bin
weighs 340kg when empty and, therefore, about 1,350kg
when full.
Ferrocement Grain Bin #3 (CS-1)
This is the first of
the new series of medium-size bins. It
is also a
vertical cylinder, having an inside diameter of 1.5 meters
and an overall
height of 1.5 meters.
Because of their large size, these bins will
usually be kept outdoors or under open verandahs or
corridors. The roof
of this bin is dome-shaped so that rain water will run off.
Loading is done by a man standing on a stool.
A manhole of 450 mm diameter
with a detachable cover is provided in the roof, along with
a padlocking
arrangement.
Unloading is done at the base through a screw conveyor
identical to that
described under type CB-2.
The capacity of the bin is 3 cubic meters, and it will store
2-3 tons. The
bin weighs 700kg when empty and 3,000kg when full.
Ferrocement Grain Bin #4 (CS-2)
The second bin in this series has the same inside diameter
as type CS-1
viz 1.5 meters, but the overall height is increased to 2.9
metres. The
construction of this bin is generally identical with type
CS-1. However,
because of the height the loading arrangement is
different. Provision
has been made for installing a pulley at the top
manhole. One man standing
on the roof of the bin will lift the sack by the pulley and
empty that
sack into the bin. A
detachable ladder is provided for climbing up to
the roof.
Unloading arrangements provided at the bottom of the bin are
identical
with Type CB-2.
The capacity of this bin is 5.4 cubic meters.
It will store 4.5 tons of
wheat. The bin
weighs about 1,100kg when empty and 5,600 when full.
<FIGURE 72>
51cp98.gif (353x353)
STORING GRAIN IN CEMENT/CONCRETE STRUCTURES
This manual has already discussed a number of materials used
for storage --
mudblocks, plastic, metal, ferrocement.
The final construction material
discussed here is cement/concrete.
Three plans for storage structures which use cement are
offered here.
The first, and simplest, was designed
by Peace Corps Volunteers in Senegal
and built by local farmers.
<FIGURE 73>
51cp99a.gif (353x353)
<FIGURE 74>
51cp99b.gif (600x600)
The second plan includes
detailed drawings for a
4.5 ton Cement Stave Silo.
This silo has been built and
tested by Peace Corps Volunteers
in Benin. The
testing
process has led to some design
improvements and these have
been incorporated into the
plan included here.
The third plan is for building and establishing Concrete
Block Square
Silos for cooperative storage.
Since small farmers often cannot afford to make improvements
by themselves,
they enter into cooperative agreements and store their grain
all together in large bins.
This plan offers a low-cost alternative to
the traditional large round silo, and the problems of
keeping strict
measurements of each farmer's input to the silo, by giving
information
on how to construct square, multi-celled (each cell is
relatively small)
silos.
<FIGURE 75>
51cp100.gif (353x353)
BRICK GRAIN STORAGE SILO
<FIGURE 76>
51cp101.gif (353x353)
Description
Traditional family granaries in West
Africa are constructed of clay, bamboo,
or millet stalks with a thatch roof.
They are easy prey for insects, rodents,
fire, and thieves. The silo described
here was designed by Peace Corps Volunteers
to protect grain against these
dangers and, equally as important, to
be of low cost and easy to build.
The silo is made of mortared concrete
bricks placed on a reinforced foundation.
A reinforced cover with a manhole
is cast to place over the bricks.
The
manhole cover can be made of sheet metal
for ease in handling, but if welding is
a problem, a cover can be cast in
concrete.
All labor was done by Senegalese villagers with the help of
a Peace Corps
Volunteer. With the
assistance of an experienced village mason, a farmer
can do the work necessary to build this silo.
Advantages:
*
Protects against insects and rodents.
*
Easy to build.
*
Does not cost a lot of money.
*
Holds 3-cubic meters of grain.
*
Easy to reach to take grain in and out.
Disadvantages:
*
Making the manhole cover may be difficult.
*
Moisture may be a problem unless the silo is
water-proofed.
Materials and Tools
*
Cement (for bricks, foundation,
cover,
mortar, plaster) 7
bags
*
Reinforcing rod (6mm)
36 meters
*
Sheet metal for manhole cover
as needed.
1. Make Forms for
Silo Base and Cover
*
Dig a hole 1.75m x 1.75m and 6cm deep.
This is for the
silo base.
*
Dig a hole 1.6m x 1.6m and 8cm deep.
This hole is for
casting the
silo cover.
*
Make, and place in the hole, a wooden mold
60cm square
by outside
measurement.
<FIGURE 77>
51cp102a.gif (353x353)
2. Make the Base and
Cover
*
Cut reinforcing rod for both the silo and
base.
*
Mix concrete and pour each form half full.
*
Set reinforcing rods into concrete.
*
Finish pouring concrete.
*
Pour concrete for the cover up to a level of
8cm. When
concrete is
somewhat set, make and place a form which is
62cm square
by 2cm high around the smaller form on top
of the
already poured concrete. Then pour
concrete into
the space
between the two frames. This forms the
lip
around the
manhole cover. The manhole cover should
be
designed to
fit around this lip. This gives
increased
protection
from insects and rodents.
<FIGURE 78>
51cp102b.gif (437x437)
*
Remember to set
the staples
for
the locking
arrangement
in the wet
concrete
of the silo
cover.
<FIGURE 79>
51cp103a.gif (162x486)
*
Make a manhole cover now if a concrete
manhole cover is to
be used.
*
Keep the concrete damp.
Wet it 3 times a day and keep it shaded.
3. Make Bricks
*
Make 100 sandcrete bricks with a mixture of
1 to 5.
The exact
number of bricks needed depends upon the
size of the
brick.
*
Dry and cure the bricks for 3 days.
Keep them damp
so they dry
slowly.
4. Build the Walls
<FIGURE 80>
51cp103b.gif (317x317)
*
Mortar the bricks into place with
the corners
overlapping alternately
for
strength.
*
Let the bricks and mortar set for
5 days.
*
Plaster the inside.
5. Put on the Silo
Cover
*
Put a layer of mortar on the top edge.
*
Put the cover in place.
6. Put on Manhole
Cover
*
Make a steel manhole lid and set it in place.
Or put
in place an
already prepared concrete cover.
*
Lock the cover in place.
<FIGURE 81>
51cp103c.gif (162x486)
THE 4.5 TON CEMENT STAVE SILO
This silo was developed in Benin, West Africa, by local
agricultural
extension agents and U.S. Peace Corps Volunteers.
Over 250 of these
silos have been built.
The plan in the following-pages is adapted from
one prepared by Peace Corps Volunteers.
The drawings were done for this
manual by Nicolas Reinhardt, a VITA Volunteer.
The cement stave silo, if protected from rain by a shelter,
will keep
unwanted moisture away from the stored grain better than
earthen-walled
silos which have not been specially treated.
In drier areas, the higher cost of the cement stave silo
means that
farmers should check out other, cheaper types of silos.
However, the
cement stave silo will work in drier areas as well as more
humid ones.
<FIGURE 82>
51cp104.gif (540x540)
Advantages
*
Stores large amounts of grain.
*
Gives good insect control when insecticide
is added to the grain
to kill
insects already in the grain.
*
Offers good protection for the grain from
rodents.
*
Is less expensive than a metal silo of
similar capacity
and is more
durable.
Disadvantages
*
Has to be protected from rain or it does not
provide good
moisture
control.
*
Uses materials and equipment which make it
more expensive to build
than the
mudblock silo.
THE SITE
*
Build the silo on high, well-drained
ground. Do not
build the
silo where it will be in the path of water
from flooding
or heavy rains.
*
Test the ground to see if it will support
the silo.
You should
build this silo on hard-pan, rock, or stable
soil.
*
Dig a small hole, about 65cm deep.
If you do not reach
hard-packed
earth or rock, try another location, if
possible. If there is no other
location available, and
you are in
doubt about whether the earth is hard enough,
special precautions should be taken.
*
Locate the silo so that it is level.
If a dryer
such as the
Pit Oil Barrel Dryer, is being built on
the same
site, the location must be chosen so that the
front of the
dryer is facing the oncoming winds during
the time of
year you will be drying.
THE SHELTER
A straw or tin-roofed shelter can be built before building
the cement
stave silo.
*
The shelter protects the silo from rain and
sunlight.
Also, it provides
a good working place for the builders
of the silo.
*
It is important to build the shelter so that
there is at
least 50cm on
all sides of the silo (and dryer). This
will ensure
protection from rain.
<FIGURE 83>
51cp106.gif (437x437)
*
The type of roof will depend on what the
farmer can
afford.
A thatch roof can always be replaced by a
tin
roof after
the silo and shelter have had several years to
pay for
themselves.
*
Many farmers build a larger shelter so that
both the silo
and a dryer,
like an oil barrel dryer, can be put underneath
it.
Tools and Materials
*
Digging tools
*
Tools for working cement and mortar
*
Cement, 16 sacks (50kg each)
*
Re-rod (6mm diameter), 10 - 12 bars (each 6m
long)
*
Galvanized wire (3mm diameter), 1 roll (4kg)
*
Wire tighteners, 10
*
Coal Tar, 15 litres
*
Plastic or other suitable moisture barrier
material
Some General Comments
*
Cement should be stored on log supports or
plastic: it will
harden if
stored directly on the ground. If there
are lumps
in the cement
and they cannot be broken easily, they should
be removed
and the amount of cement should be increased by
1/4 to 1/3.
<FIGURE 84>
51cp107.gif (540x540)
*
Road sand can be used if it is clean and
does not have too
much clay
content.
*
Gravel should be smaller than 1/3 the
thickness of the slab
in which it
will be used. The gravel should be
washed if
there is dirt
or other impurities in it.
*
Water should be free of dirt, oil, and
chemicals. These
weaken
cement. If water will be stored in
barrels, these
should be
washed thoroughly before use.
*
Mixing should be done on cement or on swept,
packed earth.
Be careful
not to scrape dirt into the mixture.
When
mixing on
dirt, all mixtures should be made on the same
spot since
that spot will harden after the first mixing.
*
Too much water causes cement to separate
from the mixture
when it is
tamped. Losing this cement weakens the
mixture.
20-25 liters
of water for each 50kg sack of cement is about
right for all
mixes.
READ THE INSTRUCTIONS THROUGH BEFORE YOU
BEGIN
1. Make the Forms
for the Staves
*
Make at least one wooden
form (mold)
for each of
the two sizes
of stave.
*
Check the forms carefully
to make sure
they have
very flat and regular inside
surfaces.
<FIGURE 85>
51cp108a.gif (600x600)
*
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THESE SURFACES BE
SMOOTH AND AT THE
CORRECT
ANGLE. SINCE MORTAR IS NOT USED TO PUT
THE STAVES
TOGETHER, ITS
AIR-AND WATER-TIGHTNESS WILL DEPEND ON THE
TIGHTLY
FITTING EDGES OF THE STAVES.
2. Make the Staves
*
Mix the mortar with a mixture of 1 part
cement to 4 parts sand.
*
Tamp the staves down firmly, with a bottle,
for example.
Be careful
the cement is not so wet that water runs out
of the form
or the staves slump.
*
Make 91 large staves and 26 small ones for
the walls.
*
Make 5 more large staves as extras in case
of breakage.
<FIGURE 86>
51cp108b.gif (540x540)
*
Make one large stave
with a hole
in it (12cm
in diameter)
for inserting
the emptying
plug.
*
Place a ring of 6mm re-rod (50cm long)
around the hole
for added
strength.
*
Cure the staves.
<FIGURE 87>
51cp109.gif (600x600)
3. Make Bricks for
the Foundation
*
Make a form of 14x20x30cm for making
bricks. This form
will give the
size blocks used in this particular
plan.
*
Use a mixture of 1 part cement to 4-7 parts
of sand,
depending
upon the quality of the sand and cement.
*
Make about 80 bricks for a foundation like
the four-brick
layer
foundation pictured below. (The actual
number of
layers depends upon how far down you must
dig to find
hard-packed earth or rock upon which to
build the
foundation.)
*
Make 8 more bricks, if you feel the earth is
soft under
the silo, or
if you are not sure the floor slab is going
to be made of
very good quality cement. These 8
bricks
will make a
pillar in the center of the foundation.
*
Be sure to water and dry the bricks the same
way as you
did the
staves.
*
Substitute regular, already made concrete
blocks of
the type used
in houses, if they are a good size to
use and if
they are strong.
4. Build a
Foundation
*
Dig a hole with an outside diameter of 2.2m.
The foundation
should rest
on hard-packed earth or rock.
<FIGURE 88>
51cp110.gif (600x600)
*
Lay the bricks using a mortar consisting of
1 part cement
to 6-8 parts
sand.
*
Lay the bricks so that each one crosses over
a joint between
bricks in the
layer below. This will make the wall stronger.
*
Be sure the foundation extends 15-20cm above
ground level.
*
Build the pillar, if required, by placing
two bricks,
joined with
mortar, in the center of the foundation hole.
Lay the
second layer of bricks with mortar crosswise over
the first
layer. Continue laying bricks and
mortar until
the pillar is
even with the top of the foundation.
*
Fill the foundation with sand and hard-pack
(tamp) the sand to
the level of
the top layer of the foundation.
5. Waterproof the
base
*
Use plastic sheets, coal tar, or tar felt.
*
Lay a 3cm layer of mortar on top of the
hard-packed
sand if using
coal tar or tar felt. This is not required
when plastic
is used.
*
Overlap joints of tar felt 20cm and spread
coal tar on
the seams.
*
Use 4 layers of coal tar if that material is
chosen to paint
over the 3 cm
layer of mortar.
6. Make a Form for
the Floor Slab
*
Use 29 large staves (temporarily) to make
the form for the
floor slab.
*
Place the staves around the outside of the
foundation wall
in a 2.2m
diameter circle. In other words, the
circle of
staves will
be flush with the outer perimeter of the foundation
wall.
*
Hold the staves in place using two wires and
wire tighteners.
*
Line the inner face of the staves with
paper, plastic, or
masonite to
prevent sticking when the staves are later
removed.
<FIGURE 89>
51cp111.gif (600x600)
*
Mark the form to show a point 4cm above the
base and
another point
10cm above the base. These marks will
guide you
when you pour the concrete into the form.
7. Form the Re-rod
Pattern for the Base
*
Form a 6.6m re-rod perimeter for the slab.
*
Use one 6m piece of 6mm re-rod and one 1m
piece.
*
Bend the ends of each re-rod piece to form
10cm hooks.
*
Join these hooks together to make a longer
bar for the
perimeter.
*
Leave an extra 10cm at each end when cutting
re-rods.
These extra
lengths will be bent to form hooks for attaching
the straight bars to the perimeter
re-rod. The two
longest
straight re-rods are each 2.3m long. A
total of
18 straight
re-rod pieces will be needed.
*
Put the re-rods into position.
*
Attach all hooks and intersecting points
with fine
wire.
*
Place the finished re-rod pattern into the
form to be sure
it fits --
before you pour the cement.
<FIGURE 90>
51cp112.gif (285x437)
8. Mix and Pour
Concrete for the Floor Slab
*
Use a mixture of one part cement, two parts
sand, and three
parts gravel
(1:2:3).
*
Mix the concrete so that it can be worked
easily but does
not flow.
*
Wet the inside of the form completely before
pouring the
concrete.
*
Pour 4cm of concrete before placing the
re-rod pattern in.
*
Tamp the concrete down well.
*
Put the re-rod in and finish pouring
concrete to the 10cm
level marked
previously.
*
Tamp very well.
THIS IS IMPORTANT.
*
Smooth and level the surface carefully.
*
Water the slab 3 times per day for 7
days. Keep the slab
shaded.
9. Mount the Wall
<FIGURE 91>
51cp113.gif (600x600)
*
Mark a circle of 100cm radius from the
center of the slab.
*
Place 13 large and 13 small staves around the
circle,
alternating
the large and small staves,with their smaller
faces inside.
*
Place a thin layer of 1:6 mortar under the
bottom row of
staves for
proper seating.
*
Place the large stave with the emptying hole
in the first
layer, with
the hole toward the bottom slab.
*
Place no mortar between the staves.
*
Place and tighten a retaining wire at each
25cm of height.
*
Place 2 wires in the bottom 25cm, 8cm from
the top and the
bottom of the small staves (one above and
one below the
emptying
hole).
*
Place the tighteners for these 2 wires only
on the large
staves.
When tightened, the tighteners should be
centered
on the large
staves.
*
Form each following layer by placing 13
large staves in
the gaps
until reaching a height of 2.0m (4 large staves
vertically).
*
Complete the final layer by placing 13 small
staves in
the remaining
gaps.
*
Hold these staves in place with 2 wires, 8cm
from the top
and 8cm from
the bottom of the small staves.
10. Make a Form for
the Cover Slab
The cover slab
is like the floor slab except that it must have a
filling hole and
is only 8cm thick.
*
Cover the top of the wall completely with solid boards.
These
must extend
beyond the edge of the wall.
*
Place an upright collar of masonite on the
boards 5cm outside
the edge of
the wall.
*
Hold the collar in place with nails.
*
Support the boards from within the silo if
they are not
strong enough
to support a man without sagging.
*
Cover the boards completely with paper or
plastic inside
the masonite
circle to prevent the concrete from sticking
to the boards
or from leaking through any large cracks.
*
Place the manhole (for entry and filling)
form 20cm
inside the
masonite circle. The form should be
about a
50cm diameter
circle made with an inverted basket, or
masonite held
in place with nails.
11. Form the Re-rod
Pattern for the Cover
*
Form the re-rod pattern in the same way as
you did the floor
slab except
that space must be left for the manhole.
<FIGURE 92>
51cp115.gif (486x600)
*
Test the pattern in the form for fit before
pouring concrete.
12. Make the Cover
*
Mix another batch of 1:2:3 concrete for the
cover.
*
Pour and tamp a 4cm layer of concrete before
placing
the re-rod
pattern.
*
Place the re-rod pattern.
*
Pour the remaining 4cm layer of concrete.
*
Tamp and smooth out the slab with a slight
slope away
from the
entry hole.
*
Make a manhole cover 6cm thick and 60cm in
diameter
with the
remaining concrete.
*
Use a masonite strip or a hole dug in the ground and
lined with
paper as a form.
*
Place a re-rod, bent into the correct shape
for a
handle, into
the concrete. This re-rod also gives
added
strength to
the cover.
<FIGURE 93>
51cp116.gif (600x600)
*
Cure and dry the cover slab and the manhole
cover in the
same way as
the bottom slab. (Wet the concrete 3
times a
day for 7
days and keep the concrete shaded.)
*
Be sure the slab is dry before removing the
form (wait at
least 10
days). It is easiest to remove the
boards by gently
levering the
edges of the slab, sliding out boards as you go.
*
Be careful not to apply pressure to the
strip between the manhole
and the outer
wall. This strip is the weakest part of
the slab.
*
Close the space between the cover slab and
the upper
walls with
mortar after taking out the boards of the form.
*
Place a sealing ring cut from a rubber inner
tube,
for example,
around the manhole. Or make a sealing
ring of
mortar. If you use a piece of rubber,
cover
the rubber
with mortar. Cover the mortar with
paper,
and place the
manhole cover on it. This will provide
a raised
horizontal joint to prevent water from
getting into
the manhole.
<FIGURE 94>
51cp117a.gif (600x600)
13. Make a Security
Plate (Anti-Theft System)
*
Use the bottom of an
oil barrel or
a piece of
heavy sheet
metal.
*
Cut a piece 20cm x 25cm.
*
Pierce two holes on one of
the 20cm
sides, 2cm in from
the side and
4cm from each
end.
A hinge will pass
through each
of these holes.
*
Cut a slot 5cm long and 1.5cm
wide,
centered on the other
20cm side of
the metal piece,
3cm from the
edge.
<FIGURE 95>
51cp117b.gif (600x600)
*
Use the remaining re-rod material to make a
staple
and two
hinges.
<FIGURE 96>
51cp117c.gif (600x600)
14. Plaster the Silo
*
Make a 1:6-8 mortar mixture.
*
Install the security plate before plastering
the outside.
Apply the
mortar 2cm thick.
<FIGURE 97>
51cp118a.gif (600x600)
*
Plaster the outside walls to a thickness of
2cm.
*
Close the inside joints with a cement wash
or plaster
to keep grain
from getting stuck in the joints and
to increase
moisture resistance.
*
Put the plastic plug into place and use
mortar to form a
tight fit
between the plug and emptying hole. BE
CAREFUL
NOT TO SEAL
THE PLUG SO FAR INTO THE HOLE THAT YOU CANNOT
PULL IT OUT.
<FIGURE 98>
51cp118b.gif (600x600)
15. Paint the Silo
*
Let the silo dry after plastering for at
least one month
before using
it.
*
Do not apply coal tar to any plastered
surfaces until after
the plaster
has been allowed to dry for at least two weeks.
* Apply coal tar to
the outside surfaces of the silo wall and
to the cover slab
to increase the silo's moisture resistance
further.
* Paint the inside
floor with coal tar. If the floor is
painted, let it
dry for at least two weeks before storing
grain so that the
grain does not stick to the tar.
<FIGURE 99>
51cp119.gif (600x600)
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE OF THE CEMENT STAVE SILO
To be sure of good quality storage for your grain, it is
important to
understand the proper way to use the Cement Stave Silo.
This can be
done easily by a few steps taken at the right times.
The Shelter
The silo must have a
good roof over it for protection from rain.
*
Check the roof often to be sure there are no
holes in it
which will
let rainwater fall on the silo.
*
Repair holes immediately.
The Silo
*
Make sure the filling and
emptying
holes are well
sealed
during storage times.
Each time
you add grain to
the silo,
carefully re-seal
the filling
hole. Use
cement
mortar or banco
(hand-packed, wetted earth).
Banco is, of
course, less
expensive
and is easier to
use.
If the emptying hole
does not
seal tightly with
mortar, it
can be sealed with
melted
candle wax or banco.
<FIGURE 100>
51cp120.gif (600x600)
*
Clean the inside of the silo and check for
cracks in the walls
shortly
before the beginning of storage each year.
Light will
pass through
even the smallest cracks. If cracks are
found,
cover them
carefully with a mixture of cement and water.
*
Use insecticides when storing grain in this
silo. Even though
the silo is
completely closed and insects cannot enter to attack
the stored
grain, there will always be some insects in the
grain at the
time of filling. These insects not only
destroy
the grain by
eating it, they can cause conditions which lead
to rotting.
*
Open the emptying hole each month to make
sure the grain is
storing well
and that no insects are alive inside.
When you
open the
silo, if it seems very warm inside, or if there is
a smell of
rotting grain, empty the silo immediately.
Re-dry
the grain.
CONCRETE BLOCK SQUARE SILOS
FOR COOPERATIVE STORAGE
Many farmers form cooperatives and store their grain
collectively in
large bins. This
allows the farmer to get better quality storage (and
drying) than he could afford as an individual.
The formation of farmers' cooperatives is an important
subject, but
this manual edition will not deal with coop formation and
processes.
However, the following plan is presented as an illustration
of how
newer ideas and methods of storage can be applied to
cooperative
storage situations.
It is presented as an alternative to the larger,
round silos so often used for cooperative storage.
<FIGURE 101>
51cp121a.gif (486x486)
Some of the Advantages of the Square Silos
*
Less expensive to build than groups of round
silos because
the walls are
shared. Also, building a group of round
silos of the
same capacity would take a greater area and
would mean
greater roofing costs.
*
Easy to expand by adding more storage cells
on to the
ends and/or
sides.
<FIGURE 102>
51cp121b.gif (218x437)
*
Stress and pressure of the grain on the
walls is not
as great as
in the round silo because each storage
cell is
relatively small.
*
Only one cell has to be opened at a time to
get out a
farmer's
grain. This means that opening the bin
is
not going to
mean that the grain in all the other bins
must be
re-fumigated, as would be needed if a large
round silo
had to be opened.
DESCRIPTION
This multiple celled storage bin has a capacity of 30
tons. It is
constructed of brick and re-inforced concrete with outside
dimensions
of 9m x 4.6m. It has
8 storage cells with inside dimensions of 2m x
2m x 2m. A 4m x 4m
open space for weighing and grain drying is
sheltered by the roof at one end. Each storage cell will
have an opening
on the top to fill the silo and a chute at the bottom to
remove grain.
<FIGURE 103>
51cp122.gif (243x486)
1. Build the Walls
*
Dig down to solid sub-soil.
*
Pour a pad of re-inforced concrete 25cm
thick x 25cm wide.
This will
extend under the inside and outside walls of the
storage
cells.
*
Make wall bricks of fired clay brick or use concrete
blocks.
*
Make two layers of re-inforced
concrete: one, halfway up the
walls and the
other at the top of the walls. These
layers
of concrete
will support the stress of the stored grain
and prevent
bursting of the bin walls.
<FIGURE 104>
51cp123.gif (600x600)
2. Make the Floor
*
Fill and pack sand or coarse gravel in the
bins to
a height 20cm
above ground level. This layer of sand
or gravel
will reduce the amount of ground moisture
which will be
in contact with the floor slab.
*
Lay a 7cm thick floor slab of re-inforced
concrete on
the
hard-packed sand
*
Put a layer of tar paper (or other
waterproofing material)
on the
concrete floor slab.
*
Coat all edges and seams of the tar paper
with a heavy
layer of
roofing tar.
*
Pour a final 3cm thick layer of concrete on
top of the
tar
paper. This will protect the tar paper
moisture
barrier from
being damaged later during storage. The
final floor level is approximately 30cm
above ground
level.
3. Finish the Walls
*
Cover the walls with a rough cement plaster
on both the
inside and
outside.
*
Paint the outside walls with coal tar or
other water-repellant
material.
4. Cover the Bins
*
Make 8 individual slabs of reinforced
concrete.
*
Make the slabs on the ground using reusable
wooden frames.
*
Make a form which leaves a 60cm x 60cm
opening for filling
the bins.
*
Place the re-inforced slabs side by side to
cover the silo
cells.
*
Join all edges and seams with a heavy layer
of roofing tar.
*
Fill with grain, put concrete cover over the
filling hole and
seal with
roofing.
5. Make a Roof
*
Cover the entire building with a roof, for
example, of
corrugated
sheet metal or local thatch.
6. Dig a Drainage
Ditch
*
Dig a gutter along the sides of the building
where the roof
is pitched.
*
Slope the ground away from the foundation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The information in this manual is not and can not be
complete. The
information presented here cannot be immediately applicable
or appropriate
to all regions or to every storage need.
You may well require
further technical assistance in adapting these materials and
others
to your grain storage situation.
Some of that help can come from
books; much, from organizations and people.
The Tropical Products Institute (TPI) may already be a
familiar name
to you. This agency
does a great deal to gather and distribute information
worldwide on grain and grain storage problems.
Materials from
the TPI library have been of great value in the preparation
of this
manual.
Peace Corps and VITA are grateful to TPI for its permission
to reprint
that agency's bibliography of materials on the various
aspects of farm-level
grain storage.
Tropical
Products Institute
G64 Crop
storage bibliography
(with particular reference to
the
storage of durable
agricultural produce in tropical
and
sub-tropical countries)
Mrs.
S.M. Blatchford and A.J. Wye
This bibliography has been produced by the Tropical Products
Institute, a British
Government organization which helps developing countries to
derive greater benefits
from their renewable resources.
Reproduction of this bibliography, in whole or in part, is
gladly permitted provided that
full acknowledgement is given to the Tropical Products
Institute, Foreign and
Commonwealth Office, (Overseas Development Administration),
and to the authors.
Requests for further information on this subject should be
addressed to:
Tropical Stored Products Centre
(Tropical Products Institute)
London Road
Slough SL3 7HL
Bucks.
Contents
TEXTBOOKS
JOURNALS
ANNUAL REPORTS
HANDBOOKS, BULLETINS, SPECIAL REPORTS
ADVISORY LEAFLETS
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
NOTES
This bibliography attempts to bring together a selection of
the more important publications
dealing with tropical crop storage; it clearly cannot be
exhaustive.
Where possible, the prices (at time of publication) and
addresses are given for obtaining
publications listed here, excluding scientific papers.
A list of the most common addresses
appears below.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION:
Sales Branch, 101-113, Pentonville Road, London, N.1.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD:
Tolcarne Drive, Pinner, Middlesex.
UNITED NATIONS: FOOD
& AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION:
Distribution & Sales Section, Via delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
UNITED STATES:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington D.C. 20402, U.S.A
Textbooks
ANDERSON, J.A. and ALCOCK, A. W. (Eds).
1954
Storage of cereal grains and their products. St. Paul, Minn:
Amer. Ass.
Cereal Chem., 1954, ix + 515 pp. (Out of print:
obtainable from Univ.
Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich., price 10.00 [pound].
Currently under revision).
BUSVINE, J. R.
Insects and hygiene. The biology
and control of insect pests of medical
1966 and
domestic importance. London: Methuen
and Co., 1966, 2nd rev.
edn,
xi + 467 pp. Price 5.00 [pound].
CHRISTENSEN, C.M. and KAUFMANN, H.H.
1969 Grain
storage. The role of fungi in quality
loss. Minneapolis, Minn.:
Univ.
Minnesota Press, 1969, vii + 153 pp. Price
6.50.
COTTON, R. T. Pests
of stored grain and grain products.
Minneapolis, Minn: Burgess
1963 Publg
Co., 1963, rev. edn, 2 + i + 318 pp. (Out of print).
MUNRO, J. W. Pests
of stored products. London:
Hutchinson (The Rentokil Library),
1966 1966,
234 pp. Price 2.10 [pound].
TRISVYATSKII, L.A.
1966
Storage of grain. Moscow:
Izdatel'stva 'Kolos', 1966, 3rd edn, 406 pp.
(Translated into English by Keane, D.M. and edited by Kent, N.L. &
Freeman, J.A. Boston Spa:
natn. Lending Libr., 1969, 3
volumes, 244,
287
& 307 pp. Price 1.25 [pound] per
vol., 3.75 [pound] the set).
Journals
BULLETIN OF GRAIN TECHNOLOGY.
Quarterly. Hapur:
Foodgrain Technologists' Research
Association of
India. Price $3.00 per annum.
JOURNAL OF STORED PRODUCTS RESEARCH.
Quarterly. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
Price 12.00 [pound] per annum.
TROPICAL STORED PRODUCTS INFORMATION.
Biannual. Bulletin of the
Tropical Stored Products Centre (Tropical
Products Institute). Free.
(Enquiries to the Tropical Stored Products
Centre,
(TPI), London Road, Slough SL3 7HL, Bucks).
Annual Reports
CENTRAL FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE.
Annual reports of the C.F.T.R.I., Mysore -
2, India. Priced.
INFESTATION CONTROL.
Reports
of the infestation Control Laboratory (Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries& Food). London:
HMSO. Priced.
NIGERIAN STORED PRODUCTS RESEARCH INSTITUTE.
Annual
reports of the Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Federal
Ministry of Trade. Lagos: Fed.
Minist. Inform., Printing Div. Priced.
PEST INFESTATION RESEARCH.
Annual
reports of the Pest infestation Laboratory (Agricultural Research
Council). London:
HMSO. Priced.
TROPICAL PRODUCTS INSTITUTE.
Annual
reports (up to and including 1967) and then Biennial reports of the
Tropical Products Institute, (Overseas Development Administration).
May
be
priced. (Enquiries to the Scientific
Secretariat, Tropical Products
Institute, 56-62 Gray's Inn Road, London WC1X 8LU).
TROPICAL STORED PRODUCTS CENTRE: MINISTRY OF OVERSEAS
DEVELOPMENT.
1970. Tropical Stored Products
Centre. A Report on the work 1965 -
1966.
(The
work of the Centre prior to 1965 was reported as part of the
Annual
Report 'Pest Infestation Research'; from July 1967 it forms a part
of the
Annual and Biennial Reports of the Tropical Products Institute.
Enquiries to the Tropical Stored Products Centre, (TPI), London Road,
Slough
SL3 7HL, Bucks).
Handbooks, Bulletins, Special Reports
BROWN, W.B.
Fumigation with methyl bromide under gas-proof sheets.
Dep. Sci Ind.
1959 Res.,
Pest infest. Res. Bull. No. 1. London:
HMSO, 1959, 2nd edn, ii +
44
pp. Price 22 1/2p.
COTTERELL, G.S. and HOWE, R. W.
1952
Insect infestation of stored food products in Nigeria.
(Report of a survey,
1948
- 50, and of control measures adopted).
Colonial Res. Publn No. 12.
London: HMSO, 1952, 40 pp. Price
25p.
EASTER, S.S. (Ed).
Preservation of grains in storage.
Papers presented at the international
1947
meeting on infestation of foodstuffs, London, 5 - 12 Aug., 1947. Wash.,
D.C.: Fd. Agric. Org. agric.
Stud. No. 2, 1948, 174 pp. Price $1.50.
FREEMAN, J.A.
Control of pests in stored agricultural products with special reference
to
1958
grain. Report of a survey in
North and South America and certain Mediterranean
countries in 1954 and 1955. Org.
eur. econ. Coop., eur. Productivity Agency
Project No. 212, Feb. 1958. Paris:
OEEC, 1958, 169 pp. Price 57 1/2p.
(OEEC
Dist. & Sales Serv., 33 Rue de Franqueville, Paris 16e and overseas
agents).
FURMAN, D.L. Suggested
guide for the use of insecticides to control insects affecting crops,
1968
livestock, households, stored products, forests and forest
products. U.S.
Dep.
Agric., agric. Res. Serv., agric. Handbk No. 331, 1968, rev. edn, xvi +
273
pp + 2 app. Price $1.50.
HALL, D.W.
Handling and storage of food grains in tropical and sub-tropical areas.
FAO
1970
agric. Dev. Paper No. 90. Rome:
UNFAO, 1970, xiv + 350 pp.
Price
US $6 (2.40 [pound]).
HINTON, H.E. and CORBET, A.S.
1963
Common insect pests of stored food products.
A guide to their identification.
Econ.
Ser. Brit. Museum (nat. Hist.), No. 15. London:
British Museum,
1963,
4th edn,, vi + 61 pp. Price 17 1/2p.
HOLMAN, L.E.
(Compiler). Aeration of grain in
commercial storages. U.S. Dep. Agric.,
1960 Mktg
Res. Rep. No. 170, 1960 (revised and reprinted Sept. 1966), 46 pp.
Price
35 cts.
HUGHES, A.M. The mites
of stored food. Tech. Bull. Minist.
Agric. Fish, Fd, No. 9, 1961,
1961 vi +
287 pp. London: HMSO. Price 87 1/2p.
INTERNATIONAL:
EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANISATION.
Report of the international conference on the protection of stored
products,
1968
Lisbon 27 - 30 Nov. 1967. EPPO
Publications, Ser. A, No. 46-E. Paris:
EPPO,
1968,171 pp. Price 1.65 [pound]. (EPPO,
1 rue le Notre, Paris).
INTERNATIONAL:
EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANIZATION.
Report of the working party on Stored Products of Tropical Origin
(Hamburg,
1969 5 - 6
Nov. 1968). EPPO Publications, Ser. A,
No. 51-E. Paris: EPPO, 1969,
38 pp
+ 7 tables. Price 50p.
(EPPO, 1 rue le Notre, Paris).
INTERNATIONAL:
EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANISATION.
Report of the Working Party on Stored Products of Mediterranean Origin
1970
(Lisbon, 13 - 14 March, 1969).
EPPO Publications, Ser. A, No. 56.
Paris:
EPPO,
1970, 85 + xxx pp. Price unknown.
(EPPO, 1 rue le Notre, Paris).
JOUBERT, P.C. and DE BEER, P.R.
1968 The
toxicity of contact insecticides to seed-infesting insects.
Series No. 6.
Tests
with bromophos on maize. S. Afr. Dep. Agric., tech. Serv., tech.
Commun. No. 84. Pretoria:
Government Printer, 1968, 9 pp.
KAMEL, A.H. and SHAHBA, B.A.
1958
Protection of stored seeds in Egypt. Bull. Minist. Agric. Egypt, Ext.
Dep.,
No. 295. Cairo:
General Organization for Government Printing
Offices,
1958,
16 pp.
LAHUE, D.W.
Evaluation of several formulations of malathion as a protectant of grain
1969
sorghum against insects - in small bins. U.S. Dep. Agric., agric. Res.
Serv.,
Mktg
Res. Rep. No. 828, 1969, iv + 19 pp. Price 20 cts.
LAHUE, D.W.
Evaluation of malathion, diazinon, a silica aerogel and a diatomaceous
1970 earth
as protectants on wheat against lesser grain borer attack ... in small
bins. U.S. Dep. Agric., agric.
Res. Serv., Mktg Res. Rep. No. 860, 1970,
iv +
12 pp.
LOCHNER, E.H.W. Safe storage of food grains in the Republic
of South Africa. S. Afr. Dep
1963
Agric., tech. Serv., tech. Commun. No. 13.
Pretoria: Government Printer,
1963,
ii + 45 pp.
LOCHNER, E.H.W. Fumigation of maize in railway trucks in
transit to the ports. (In Africaans
1964 with
English Summary). S. Afr. Dep. Agric.,
tech. Serv., tech. Commun.
No.
25. Pretoria: Government Printer, 1964,
ii + 62 pp.
McFARLANE, J.A., MARTIN, H.G., DIXON, W.B. and MOLLISON,
D.W.
1961
Prevention and control of infestation of stored grain by insect pests
and
rodents. Prepared jointly by the
Storage and Infestation, Division (Mktg
Dept,
Minist. Trade and Ind.) and Plant Protection Division (Minist. Agric.
and
Lands). Kingston, Jamaica:
Govt Printer, 1961, iii + 57 pp.
MONRO, H.A.U.
Manual of fumigation for insect control. F.A.O. agric. Studies, No. 79.
1971 Rome:
FAO, 1971, xii + 381 pp. Second edn, revised. Price 2.80 [pound].
ORDISH, G. (Gen.
Ed). Pest control in groundnuts. PANS
Manual No. 2. London:
1967
Minist. Overseas Dev., trop. Pestic. Res. H.Q. & Inf. Unit, 1967, iv
+ 138 pp.
Price
45p. (56-62 Gray's Inn Rd, London, WC1 X 8 LU).
PREVETT, P.F. An
investigation into storage problems of rice in Sierra Leone.
Colonial
1959 Res.
Studies, No.28. London: HMSO, 1959, 52
pp.
RANSOM, W.H.
Buildings for the storage of crops in warm climates.
Dep. sci. ind. Res.
1960 Trop.
Building Studies, No. 2. London: HMSO,
1960, 24 pp. Price 22 1/2p.
SALMOND, K.F.
Investigations into grain storage problems in Nyasaland with special
1957
reference to maize (Zea mays L.). Colonial Res. Publn No. 21.
London:
HMSO,
1957, 49 pp. Price 22 1/2p.
SMITH, C.V.
Meteorology and grain storage.
Tech. Note U.N. Wld met. Org., No. 101
1969 (WMO
No. 243 TP 133). Geneva:
Secretariat of World Meteorological
Organisation, 1969, xvi + 47 pp. Price 1.00 [pound].
STEELE, B. (Gen.
Ed.). Pest control in rice.
PANS Manual No. 3. London:
Minist.
1970
Overseas Dev. trop. Pestic. Res. H.Q. & Inf. Unit, 1970, ii + 270
pp.
Price
62 1/2p. (56-62 Gray's Inn Rd, London WC1X 8LU).
UNITED NATIONS: FOOD
AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION.
1968
Improved storage and its contribution to world food supplies.
Chapter 4
in
'State of Food and agriculture, 1968', pp 115 - 143. Rome:
FAO,
1968,
205 pp. Price $5.75 or 2.30 [pound].
UNITED NATIONS: FOOD
AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION.
1969 Crop
Storage. Technical Report No. 1 of the
Food Research and Development
Unit,
Accra, Ghana. Prepared for the
Government of Ghana by FAO
acting as executing agency for the United Nations Development Programme,
based
on the work of J. Rawnsley. PL:SF/GHA
7. Rome: FAO, 1969,
ix +
89 pp + 7 app.
[\I\UNITED STATES:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING
SERVICE, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES BRANCH, STORED PRODUCTS INSECTS
SECTION.
1958
Stored grain pests. U.S. Dep. Agric. Fmrs Bull. No. 1260, 1958, rev.,
46
pp. Price 25 cts.
WOGAN, G.N.
(Ed.). Mycotoxins in
foodstuffs. Proceedings of a symposium
at Massachusetts
1965 Inst.
Technol., March 1964. Cambridge, Mass:
Mass. Inst. Technol.
Press, 1965, xii + 291 pp. Price 3.75 [pound].
WORLD FOOD PROGRAMME.
1970 Food
storage manual. (Prepared by the
Tropical Stored Products Centre,
Ministry of Overseas Development). Rome:
FAO, 1970, 3 vols, 820 pp.
Price
$18.
Advisory Leaflets
BOOTH, C, HOLLIDAY, P. and SUBRAMANIAN, C.V.
1969
C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria.
Set 22, sheets 211 - 220.
Kew: Commonw. Mycol. Inst.,
1969. Price 25p. (Commonw.
Mycol. Inst., Ferry Lane, Kew, Surrey).
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1967
Methods for sampling oilseeds. Br. Stand. No. 4146, 1967, 16 pp. Price
30p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1968
Methods of test for cereals and pulses.
Part 2. Determination of moisture
content of cereals and cereal products (basic reference method). Br. Stand.
No.
4317, Part 2, 1968, 12 pp. Price 25p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1968
Methods of test for cereals and pulses.
Part 4. Determination of impurities
in
pulses. Br. Stand. No. 4317, Part 4, 1968, 7 pp. Price 20p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1969
Methods for sampling cereals (as grain).
Br. Stand. No. 4510, 1969, 19 pp.
Price
50p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1969
Methods for sampling pulses. Br.
Stand. No. 4511, 1969, 16 pp. Price 40p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1969
Recommended common names for pesticides.
Br. Stand. No. 1831, 1969,
4th
rev., 107 pp. Price 2.00 [pound].
HARMOND, J.E., BRANDENBURG, N.R. and KLEIN, L.M.
1968
Mechanical seed cleaning and handling. U.S. Dep. Agric., agric. Res.
Serv.
(in
conj. w. Oregon agric. Exp. Stn), agric. Handbk No. 354, 1968, 56 pp.
Price
55 cts.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1966
Fumigation with the liquid fumigants carbon tetrachloride, ethylene
dichloride and ethylene dibromide.
Precautionary measures. London:
HMSO,
1966, rev. edn, i + 8 pp. Price 7 1/2p.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1968
Heating of grain in store.
Minist. Agric. Fish. Fd, Adv. Leafl. No. 404,
1968,
rev., 6 pp. Single copies free.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1968
Insect pests in food stores.
Minist. Agric. Fish. Fd, Adv. Leafl. No. 483,
1968,
rev., 8 pp. Single copies free.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1969
Fumigation with ethylene oxide.
Precautionary measures, 1969.
London:
HMSO,
1969, 8 pp. Price 9p.
UNITED STATES:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
SERVICE, AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH DIVISION.
1969 Guide
lines for mold control in high-moisture corn.
U.S. Dep. Agric., Fmrs
Bull. No. 2238, 1969, rev., 16 pp. Price 10
cts.
UNITED STATES:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
SERVICE, MARKET QUALITY RESEARCH DIVISION.
1969
Controlling insects in farm-stored grain.
U.S. Dep. Agric., Leafl. No. 553,
1969, 8 pp. Price 10 cts.
Scientific Papers
A full list of papers published by staff of the Tropical
Stored Products Centre is available on
request from the TSPC, (TPI), London Road, Slough SL3 7HL,
Bucks).
AMARO, J.P. and CANCELA DA FONSECA, J.P.
1957
Panorama actual dos problemas fitossanitarios dos produtos armazenados
em
Africa. (Comprehensive survey of
phytosanitary problems of stored
products in Africa). Garcia de
Orta, 5 (4), 675 - 699.
ASHMAN, F. The
chemical control of stored food insect pests in Kenya. J. agric. vet.
1963
Chem., 4 (2), 44-48.
ASHMAN, F. An
assessment of the value of dilute dust insecticides for the protection of
1966
stored maize in Kenya. J. appl. Ecol., 3(1), 169 - 179.
ASHMAN, F.
Inspection methods for detecting insects in stored produce.
Trop. stored
1966 Prod.
inf., (12), 481 - 494.
ASHMAN, F., ELIAS, D.G., ELLISON, J.F. and SPRATLEY, R.
1969 An
instrument for detecting insects within food grains.
Milling, 151 (3),
32,
34 & 36.
ATTIA, R. and KAMEL, A. H.
1965 The
fauna of stored products in U.A.R. Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 49, 221 - 232.
BAILEY, S.W.
Airtight storage of grain, its effects on insect pests. II. Calandra
oryzae
1956
(small strain). Aust. J. agric.
Res., 7 (1), 7 - 19.
BAILEY, S.W.
Airtight storage of grain, its effects on insect pests. II. Calandra
oryzae
1957
(large strain). Aust. J. agric.
Res., 8 (6), 595 - 603.
BAILEY, S. W. The
effects of percussion on insect pests of grain.
J. econ. Ent., 55 (3),
1962 301 -
305.
BAILEY, S. W.
Airtight storage of grain - its effect on insect pests. IV.
Rhyzopertha
1965
dominica (F.) and some other Coleoptera that infest stored grain.
J.
stored Prod. Res., 1 (1), 25 - 33.
BARNES, J. M.
Pesticide residues as hazards.
PANS, 15 (1), 2 - 8.
1969
BREESE, M.H. The
infestibility of stored paddy by Sitophilus sasakii (Tak.) and
1960
Rhyzopertha dominica (F.). Bull.
ent. Res., 51 (3), 599 - 630.
BREESE, M.H.
Studies on the oviposition of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) in rice and
paddy.
1963 Bull.
ent. Res., 53 (4), 621 - 637.
BURRELL, N.J. The
chilled storage of grain. Ceres, (5),
15-20.
1969
CABRAL, A.L. and MOREIRA, I.S.
1960 Da
occorrencia de algunas pragas de produtos ultramarinos en poroes de
navios mercantes (Carreira da Guini).
(Occurrence and distribution of
some
pests of stored products in ships' holds of cargo ships of the Guinea
Line). Garcia de Orta, 8 (1),
47-57.
CASWELL, G.H. The
infestation of cowpeas in the Western Region of Nigeria.
Trop. Sci., 3
1961 (4),
154 - 158.
CASWELL, G.H. and CLIFFORD, H. T.
1960
Effect of moisture content on germination and growth of fumigated maize
grain. Emp. J. exp. Agric., 28,
139 - 149.
CHRISTENSEN, C.M. and KAUFMANN, H.H.
1965
Deterioration of stored grains by fungi.
A. Rev. Phytopath., 3, 69 - 84.
CHRISTENSEN, C.M. and LOPEZ, L.C.
1963
Pathology of stored seeds. Proc.
int. Seed Test. Ass., 28, 701 - 711.
CLARKE, J.H. Fungi
in stored products. Trop. stored Prod.
Inf., (15), 3 - 14.
1968
COAKER, T.H.
'Insack' treatment of maize with insecticide for protection against
storage
1959 pests
in Uganda. E. Afr. agric. J., 24 (4),
244 - 250.
COLLINGS, H.
Hermetic sealing of a stack of maize with bituminous roofing felt.
1960 Trop.
Agric., Trin., 37 (1), 53 - 60.
COURSEY, D.G. Yam
storage. I : a review of yam storage
practices and of information on
1967
storage losses. J. stored Prod.
Res., 2 (3), 229 - 244.
COVENEY, R.D. Sacks
for the storage of food grains. Trop.
stored Prod Inf.,(17), 3-22.
1969
CRANHAM, J.E.
Insect infestation of stored raw cocoa in Ghana.
Bull. ent. Res., 51 (1),
1960 203 -
222.
DAVEY, P.M. and ELCOATE, S.
1967
Moisture content/relative humidity equilibria of tropical stored
produce.
Part
3. Legumes, spices and beverages.
Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (13), 15 - 34.
DAVIES, J.C.
Aluminium phosphide for bulk grain fumigation in Uganda.
E. Afr. agric.
1958 J.,
24 (2), 103 - 105.
DAVIES, J.C. A
note on the control of bean pests in Uganda.
E. Afr. agric. J., 24 (3),
1959 174 -
178.
DAVIES, J.C.
Coleoptera associated with stored products in Uganda.
E. Afr. agric. J., 25
1960 (3),
199 - 201.
DAVIES, J.C.
Storage of maize in a prefabricated aluminium silo in tropical
conditions.
1960 E.
Afr. agric. J., 25 (4), 225 - 228.
DAVIES, J.C.
Experiments on the crib storage of maize in Uganda.
E. Afr. agric. J., 26
1960 (1),
71 - 75.
DEXTER, S.T., CHAVES, A.M. and EDJE, O.T.
1969
Drying or anaerobically preserving small lots of grain for seed or food.
Agron. J., 61 (6), 913 - 919.
ELDER, W.B. CSIRO
develops aeration system for farm-stored grain.
Pwr Fmg Bett. Fmg
1969 Dig.,
78 (10), 10 - 13.
FULLERTON, R.L.
Low-cost farm buildings for storage and equipment housing in Ghana.
1968 Ghana
J. agric. Sci., 1 (2), 165 - 170.
GILES, P.H. The
storage of cereals by farmers in Northern Nigeria.
Trop. Agric., Trin.,
1964 41
(3), 197 - 212.
GILES, P.H.
Control of insects infesting stored sorghum in Northern Nigeria.
J. stored
1965
Prod. Res., 1 (2), 145 - 158.
GILES, P.H. Maize
storage: the problem of today.
Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (14), 9 - 19.
1967
GILES, P.H.
Observations in Kenya on the flight activity of stored products insects,
1969
particularly Sitophilus zeamais Motsch.
J. stored Prod. Res., 4 (2); 317 - 329.
GOLUMBIC, C. and DAVIS, D.F.
1966
Radiation disinfestation of grain and seeds.
Proc. Symp. Food Irradiation,
Karlsruhe, 1966, pp 473 - 488.
Vienna : Int. Atomic Energy
Agency.
GONEN, M. and CALDERON, M.
1968
Changes in the microfloral composition of moist sorghum stored under
hermetic conditions. Trop. Sci.,
10 (2), 107 - 114.
GRAHAM, W.M.
Warehouse ecology studies of bagged maize in Kenya. I.
The distribution
1970 of
adult Ephestia (Cadra) cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera, Phycitidae).
II. Ecological observations of
an infestation by E. cautella. III.
Distribution
of
the immature stages of E. cautella. IV.
Reinfestation following
fumigation with methyl bromide gas.
J. stored Prod. Res., 6 (2): I,
147 - 155;
II,
157 - 167; III, 169 - 175; IV, 177 - 180.
GREEN, A.A. The
protection of dried sea-fish in South Arabia from infestation by
1967
Dermestes frischii Kug. (Coleoptera, Dermestidae).
J. stored Prod. Res.,
2
(4), 331 - 350.
HALL, D.W.
Prevention of waste of agricultural produce during handling, storage and
1968
transportation. Trop. stored
Prod. Inf., (1 5), 15 - 23.
HALL, D.W. Food
storage in the developing countries. J.
R. Soc. Arts, 117 (5156),
1969 562 -
579.
HALLIDAY, D.
Build-up of free fatty acid in Northern Nigerian groundnuts.
Trop. Sci., 9
1967 (4),
211 - 237.
HAYWARD, L.A.W. Infestation control in stored groundnuts in
Northern Nigeria. Wld Crops,
1963 15
(2), 63 - 67.
HOWE, R.W.
Entomological problems of food storage in Northern Nigeria.
Bull. ent.
1952 Res.,
43 (1), 111 - 144.
HOWE, R.W. A
summary of estimates of optimal and minimal conditions for population
1965
increase of some stored products insects.
J. stored Prod. Res., 1 (2), 177 - 184.
HOWE, R.W.
Losses caused by insects and mites in stored foods and feeding
stuffs. Nutr.
1965
Abstr. Rev., 35, 285 - 293.
HOWE, R.W. and CURRIE, J.E.
1964 Some
laboratory observations on the rates of development, mortality and
oviposition of several Bruchidae
breeding in stored pulses. Bull. ent.
Res.,
55
(3), 437 - 477.
HYDE, M.B.
Hazards of storing high-moisture grain in airtight silos in tropical
countries.
1969 Trop.
stored Prod. Inf., (18), 9 - 12.
JOFFE, A.
Moisture migration in horizontally stored bulk maize:
influence of grain-infesting
1958
insects under South African conditions.
S. Afr. J. agric. Sci., 1
(2),
175 - 193.
JOFFE, A. The
effect of physical disturbance or 'turning' of stored maize on the
1963
development of insect infestation. I. Grain elevator studies.
S. Afr. J.
agric. Sci., 6, 55 - 64.
KAPUR, N.S. and SRIVASTAVA, H.C.
1959 Storage
and preservation of fatty foods. Food
Sci., Mysore, 8, 257 - 262.
KHALIFA, A. On
open-air and underground storage in the Sudan.
Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte,
1960 53
(44), 129 - 142.
KHALIFA, A. The
relative susceptibility of some varieties of sorghum to Trogoderma
1962
attack. Emp. J. exp. Agric., 30
(118), 133 - 136.
KOCKUM, S.
Protection of cob maize stored in cribs.
E. Afr. agric. J., 19 (2), 69 - 173.
1953
KOCKUM, S.
Control of insects attacking maize on the cob in crib stores.
E. Afr. agric.
1958 J.,
23 (4), 275 - 279.
LE PELLEY, R.H. and KOCKUM, S.
1954
Experiments in the use of insecticides for the protection of grains in
storage.
Bull.
ent. Res., 45 (2), 295 - 311.
McFARLANE, J.A. An annotated record of Coleoptera,
Lepidoptera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera
1963
associated with stored produce in Jamaica.
Trop. Agric., Trin., 40 (3), 211-216
McFARLANE, J.A. The productivity and rate of development of
Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera,
1968
Curculionidae) in various parts of Kenya.
J. stored Prod. Res., 4 (1), 31 - 51.
McFARLANE, J.A. Stored products insect control in
Kenya. Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (18),
13 - 23
1969
McFARLANE, J.A. Treatment of large grain stores in Kenya
with dichlorvos slow-release strips
1970 for
the control of Cadra cautella. J. econ.
Ent., 63 (1), 288 - 292.
MACKAY, P.J.
Theory of moisture in stored produce.
Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (13)., 9 - 14.
1967
MAJUMDER, S.K. and BANO, A.
1964
Toxicity of calcium phosphate to some pests of stored grain.
Nature,
Lond., 202 (4939), 1359 - 1360.
MAJUMDER, S. K., KRISHNAMURTHY, K. and GODAVARIBA, S.
1961
Pre-harvest prophylaxis for infestation control in stored food grains.
Nature, Lond., 192 (4800), 375 - 376.
MAJUMDER, S. K., NARASIMHAN, K.S. and SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1959
Insecticidal effects of activated charcoal and clays.
Nature, Lond, 184
(4693), 1165 - 1166.
MAJUMDER, S.K. and NATARAJAN, C.P.
1963 Some
aspects of the problem of bulk storage of foodgrains in India.
Wld
Rev. Pest Control, 2 (2), 25 - 35.
MISHRA, A. B., SHARMA, S.M. and SINGH, S.P.
1969 Fungi
associated with Sorghum vulgare under different storage conditions
in
India. PANS, 15 (3), 365 - 367.
PAGE, A.B.P. and LUBATTI, O.F.
1963
Fumigation of insects. A. Rev.
Ent., 8, 239 - 264.
PARKIN, E.A. The
protection of stored seeds from insects and rodents.
Proc. Int. Seed
1963 Test.
Ass., 28 (4), 893 - 909.
PARKIN, E.A. The
onset of insecticide resistance among field populations of stored product
1965
insects. J. stored Prod. Res., 1
(1) 3 - 8.
PINGALE, S.V.,
KADKOL, S.B., RAO, M.N., SWAMINATHAN, M. and SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1957
Effect of insect infestation on stored grain:
II. Studies on husked,
hand-pounded,
milled raw rice and parboiled milled rice.
J. Sci. Fd Agric., 8 (9),
512 -
516.
PINGALE, S.V., RAO,
M.N. and SWAMINATHAN, M.
1954
Effect of insect infestation on stored wheat.
I. Studies on soft wheat.
J.
Sci. Fd Agric., 5 (1), 51 - 54.
PIXTON, S.W.
Moisture content - its significance and measurement in stored products.
1967 J.
stored Prod. Res., 3 (1), 35 - 47.
PIXTON, S.W. A
possible rapid method of determining the moisture content of high-moisture
1970
grain.
J. Sci. Fd Agric., 21 (9), 465 - 467.
POINTEL, J-G.
Contribution a la conservation du niebi, du vouandzou, du mais, des
1968
arachides et du sorgho.
(Contribution to the preservation of cowpeas,
Voandzeia subterranea (Bambarra groundnut), maize, groundnuts and
sorghum). Agron. trop., Nogent,
23 (9), 982 - 986.
POINTEL, J-G.
Essai et enquete sur greniers a mais togolais.
(A trial and survey on
1969
Togolese maize granaries). Agron.
trop., Nogent, 24 (8), 709 - 718.
PRADHAN, S., MOOKHERJEE, P.B. and SHARMA, G.C.
1965
Pusa bin for grain storage.
Indian Fmg, 15 (1), 14 - 16.
PREVETT, P.F. A
study of rice storage under tropical conditions.
J. agric. Engng Res., 4
1959
(3), 243 - 254.
PREVETT, P.F.
The distribution of insects in stacks of bagged groundnuts in Northern
1964
Nigeria. Bull. ent. Res., 54 (4), 689 - 713.
QURESHI, Z.A., WILBUR; D.A. and MILLS, R.B.
1970
Irradiation of early instars of the
Angoumois Grain Moth. J. econ. Ent.,
63
(4), 1241 - 1247.
RHYNEHART, T.
The control of insects infesting groundnuts after harvest in the Gambia:
1960
IV. The practical application of
control measures. Trop. Sci., 2 (3),
134 - 139.
ROBERTSON, J. V.
Trials with small capacity grain silos in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
E. Afr.
1968
agric. for J., 34 (2), 263 - 276.
ROWLANDS, D.G.
The metabolism of contact insecticides in stored grains.
Residue Rev., 17,
1967
105 - 177.
SARID, J.N. and KRISHNAMURTHY, K.
1965
Storage structures for large scale handling and preservation of food
grain.
Bull. Grain Tech., 3 (2), 62 - 69.
SARID, J.N. and KRISHNAMURTHY, K.
1968
Protection of marketable grain.
Bull. Grain Tech., 6 (1), 16 - 20.
SARID, J.N., RAI, L., KRISHNAMURTHY, K. and PINGALE, S.V.
1965
Studies on the large scale storage of food grains in India.
Part II.
Studies
on
the relative suitability of cement concrete and aluminium bins for
storing wheat. Bull. Grain
Tech., 3 (4), 135 - 141.
SARID, J.N., RAI, L. and PINGALE, S.V.
1967 Studies
on the large scale storage of food grains in India.
Part III. Studies
on
the insect and temperature fluctuations in bag storage of wheat.
Bull.
Grain Tech., 5 (1), 3 - 11.
SODERSTROM, E.L.
Effectiveness of green electroluminescent lamps for attracting
stored-product
1970
insects. J. econ. Ent., 63 (3),
726 - 731.
SOUTHGATE, B.J.
Plastics films for the bulk storage of food.
Plast. Inst. Trans. & J., 33
1965
(103), 11 - 15.
STRONG, R.G. and LINDGREN, D.L.
1960
Germination of cereal, sorghum and small legume seeds after fumigation
with hydrogen phosphide. J.
econ. Ent., 53 (1), 1 - 4.
STRONG, R.G. and LINDGREN, D.L.
1961
Effect of methyl bromide and hydrocyanic acid fumigation on the
germination
of
corn seed. J. econ. Ent., 54 (8), 764 -
770.
SWAINE, G.
Trials on the underground storage of maize of high moisture content in
1957
Tanganyika. Bull. ent. Res., 48
(2), 397 - 406.
VENKAT RAO, S., NUGGEHALLI, R.N., PINGALE, S.V.,
SWAMINATHAN, M. and
SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1260
Effect of insect infestation on stored field bean (Dolichos lablab) and
black gram (Phaseolus mungo). Fd
Sci., Mysore, 9, 79 - 82.
VENKAT RAO, S., NUGGEHALLI, R.N., SWAMINATHAN, M., PINGALE,
S.V. and
SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1958
Effect of insect infestation on stored grain:
III. Studies on Kaffir
corn
(Sorghum vulgare). J. Sci. Fd
Agric., 9 (12), 837 - 839.
WATTERS, F.L.
Effects of grain moisture content on residual toxicity and repellency of
1959
malathion. J. econ. Ent., 52
(1), 131 - 134.
WATTERS, F.L.
Physical methods of insect control.
Proc. Ent. Soc. Manitoba, 21,
1965 18
- 27.
WATTERS, F.L. An
appraisal of gamma irradiation for insect control in cereal foods.
1968
Manitoba Ent., 2, 37-45.
WILKIN, D.R. and GREEN, A.A.
1970
Polythene sacks for the control of insects in grain.
J. stored Prod. Res.,
6
(1), 97 - 101.
WRIGHT, F.N.
New storage, transportation and handling techniques for tropical
agricultural
1965
produce. Congr. Prot. Cult.
trop., Marseilles, 1965, pp 93 - 98.
Marseilles:
Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie.
WRIGHT, F.N. and SOUTHGATE, B.J.
1962
The potential uses of plastics for storage with particular reference to
rural
Africa. Trop. Sci., 4 (2), 74 -
81.
Conversion Tables
Simple methods are given here for
converting English and metric units
of measurement. Following these
is
a series of useful conversion tables
for units of area, volume, weight,
pressure and power.
LENGTH CONVERSION
The chart in Figure
3 is useful
for quick conversion from meters and
centimeters to feet and inches, or
vice versa. For more
accurate results
and for distances greater than 3 meters,
use either the tables in Figure 2 or
the equations.
The chart in Figure
3 has metric divisions
of one centimeter to three meters,
and English units in inches and feet
to ten feet. It is
accurate to about
plus or minus one centimeter.
Example:
An example will
explain how to use
the tables. Suppose
you wish to find
how many inches are equal to 66cm:
On
the "Centimeters into Inches" table look
down the leftmost column to 60cm and then
right to the column headed 6cm.
This
gives the result, 25.984 inches.
Equations:
1 inch
= 2.54cm
1 foot
= 30.48cm
= 0.3048m
1 yard
= 91.44cm
= 0.9144m
1 mile
= 1.607km
= 5280 feet
1cm
= 0.3937 inches
1m
= 39.37 inches
= 3.28 feet
1km
= 0.62137 miles
= 1000
meters
Inches into centimeters
FIGURE 2
(1 in. = 2.539977 cm.)
inches 0
1
2 3
4
5 6
7
8 9
0
cm.
2.54 5.08
7.62
10.16 12.70
15.24
17.78 20.32
22.86
10
25.40
27.94 30.48
33.02
35.56 38.10
40.64
43.18 45.72
48.26
20
50.80
53.34 55.88
58.42
60.96 63.50
66.04
68.58 71.12
73.66
30
76.20
78.74 81.28
93.82
86.36 88.90
91.44
93.98 96.52
99.06
40
101.60
104.14 106.68
109.22
111.76 114.30
116.84
119.38 121.92
124.46
50
127.00
129.54 132.08
134.62
137.16 139.70
142.24
144.78 147.32
149.86
60
152.40
154.94 157.48
160.02
162.56 165.10
167.64
170.18 172.72
175.26
70
177.80
180.34 182.88
185.42
187.96 190.50
193.04
195.58 198.12
200.66
80
203.20
205.74 208.28
210.82
213.36 215.90
218.44
220.98 223.52
226.06
90
228.60
231.14 233.68
236.22
238.76 241.30
243.84
246.38 248.92
251.46
Centimeters into inches
(1 cm. = 0.3937 in.)
cm. 0
1
2 3
4
5 6
7
8 9
0
inches
0.394 0.787
1.181
1.575 1.969
2.362
2.756 3.150
3.543
10 3.937
4.331
4.724 5.118
5.512
5.906 6.299
6.693
7.087 7.480
20 7.874
8.268
8.661 9.055
9.449
9.843 10.236
10.630
11.024 11.417
30 11.811
12.205
12.598 12.992
13.386
13.780 14.173
14.567
14.961 15.354
40 15.748
16.142
16.535 16.929
17.323
17.717 18.110
18.504
18.898 19.291
50 19.685
20.079
20.472 20.866
21.260
21.654 22.047
22.441
22.835 23.228
60 23.622
24.016
24.409 24.803
25.197
25.591 25.984
26.378
26.772 27.165
70 27.559
27.953
28.346 28.740
29.134
29.528 29.921
30.315
30.709 31.102
80 31.496
31.890
32.283 32.677
33.071
33.465 33.858
34.252
34.646 35.039
90 35.433
35.827
36.220 36.614
37.008
37.402 37.795
38.189
38.583 38.976
<FIGURE 105>
51cp143.gif (600x600)
WEIGHT CONVERSION
The chart in Figure
5 converts pounds
and ounces to kilograms and grams or
vice versa. For
weights greater than
ten pounds, or more accurate results,
use the tables (Figure 4) or conversion
equations. See
"Length Conversion,"
Figure 2, for an example of the use of
the tables.
On the chart,
notice that there are
sixteen divisions for each pound to
represent ounces.
There are 100 divisions
only in the first kilogram, and
each division represents ten grams.
The chart is accurate to about plus
or minus twenty grams.
Equations:
1 ounce = 28.35
grams
1 pound = 0.4536
kilograms
1 gram
= 0.03527 ounce
1 gram
= 2.205 pounds
FIGURE 4
Kilograms into pounds
(1 kg. = 2.20463 lb.)
kg. 0
1
2 3
4
5 6
7
8 9
0
lb.
2.20 4.41
6.61
8.82 11.02
13.23
15.43 17.64
19.84
10 22.05
24.25
26.46 28.66
30.86
33.07 35.27
37.48
39.68 41.89
20 44.09
46.30
48.50 50.71
52.91
55.12 57.32
59.53
61.73 63.93
30 66.14
68.34
70.55 72.75
74.96
77.16 79.37
81.57
83.78 85.98
40 88.19
90.39
92.59 94.80
97.00
99.21 101.41
103.62
106.82 108.03
50 110.23
112.44
114.64 116.85
119.05
121.25 123.46
125.66
127.87 130.07
60 132.28
134.48
136.69 138.89
141.10
143.30 145.51
147.71
149.91 152.12
70 154.32
156.53
158.73 160.94
163.14
165.35 167.55
169.76
171.96 174.17
80 176.37
178.58
180.78 182.98
185.19
197.39 189.60
191.80
194.01 196.21
90 198.42
200.62
202.83 205.03
207.24
209.44 211.64
213.85
216.05 218.26
Pounds into kilograms
(1 lb. = 0.45359 kg.)
lb. 0
1
2
3 4
5
6 7
8
9
0
kg.
0.454 0.907
1.361
1.814 2.268
2.722
3.175 3.629
4.082
10 4.536
4.990
5.443 5.897
6.350
6.804 7.257
7.711
8.165 8.618
20 9.072
9.525
9.979 10.433
10.886
11.340 11.793
12.247
12.701 13.154
30 13.608
14.061
14.515 14.969
15.422
15.876 16.329
16.783
17.237 17.690
40 18.144
18.597
19.051 19.504
19.958
20.412 20.865
21.319
21.772 22.226
50 22.680
23.133
23.587 24.040
24.494
24.948 25.401
25.855
26.308 26.762
60 27.216
27.669
28.123 28.576
29.030
29.484 29.937
30.391
30.844 31.298
70 31.751
32.205
32.659 33.112
33.566
34.019 34.473
34.927
35.380 35.834
80 36.287
36.741
37.195 37.648
38.102
38.555 39.009
39.463
39.916 40.370
90 40.823
41.277
41.730 42.184
42.638
43.091 43.545
43.998
44.452 44.906
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
The chart in Figure
1 is useful for
quick conversion from degrees Celsius
(Centigrade) to degrees Fahrenheit and
vice versa. Although
the chart is fast
and handy, you must use the equations
below if your answer must be accurate
to within one degree.
Equations:
Degrees Celsius = 5/9 x
Degrees
Fahrenheit -32)
Degrees Fahrenheit = 1.8 x (Degrees
Celsius) +32
Example:
This example may
help to clarify the
use of the equations; 72F equals how
many degrees Celsius?
72F = 5/9 (Degrees
F -32)
72F = 5/9 (72 -32)
72F = 5/9 (40)
72F = 22.2C
Notice that the
chart reads 22C, an
error of about 0.2C.
Conversion Tables
Units of Area
1 Square Mile
= 640 Acres =
2.5899 Square Kilometers
1 Square Kilometer
= 1,000,000 Square Meters =
0.3861 Square Mile
1 Acre
= 43,560 Square Feet
1 Square Foot
= 144 Square Inches =
0.0929 Square Meter
1 Square Inch
= 6.452 Square Centimeters
1 Square Meter
= 10.764 Square Feet
1 Square Centimeter
= 0.155 Square Inch
Units of Volume
1.0 Cubic Foot
= 1728 Cubic Inches =
7.48 U.S. Gallons
1.0 British Imperial Gallon = 1.2 U.S. Gallons
1.0 Cubic Meter
= 35.314 Cubic Feet =
264.2 U.S. Gallons
1.0 Liter
= 1000 Cubic Centimeters =
0.2642 U.S. Gallons
Units of Weight
1.0 Metric Ton
= 1000 Kilograms =
2204.6 Pounds
1.0 Kilogram
= 1000 Grams =
2.2046 Pounds
1.0 Short Ton
= 2000 Pounds
Conversion Tables
Units of Pressure
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 144 Pounds per square foot
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 27.7 Inches of Water(*)
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 2.31 Feet of Water(*)
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 2.042 Inches
of Mercury(*)
1.0 Atmosphere
= 14.7 Pounds per square inch (PSI)
1.0 Atmosphere
= 33.95 Feet of Water
1.0 Foot of Water = 0.433 PSI
= 62.355 Pounds per square foot
1.0 Kilogram per square centimeter
= 14.223 Pounds per square inch
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 0.0703 Kilogram per square centimeter
(*) at 62 degrees Fahrenheit (16.6 degrees Celsius)
Units of Power
1.0 Horsepower (English)
= 746 Watts = 0.746 Kilowatt (KW)
1.0 Horsepower (English)
= 550 Foot Pounds per second
1.0 Horsepower (English)
= 33,000 Foot Pounds per minute
1.0 Kilowatt (KW) = 1000
Watts = 1.34 Horsepower (HP)
English
1.0 Horsepower (English)
= 1.0139 Metric Horsepower (cheval-vapeur)
1.0 Metric Horsepower
= 75 Meters X Kilogram/Second
1.0 Metric Horsepower
= 0.736 Kilowatt = 736 Watts
========================================
========================================
