3.1 Definition of reading
3.2 Second and foreign language learning
3.3 Learning to read in a foreign language
3.4 The testing of reading
The definition of reading adopted for this report is that it is a deliberate process of looking at and understanding written language. The focus of enquiry is therefore at the basic level (often referred to as functional literacy), and examines the extent to which pupils understand relatively simple texts. The nature of understanding is contentious but I shall take it to be the understanding intended by the writer and likely to be agreed on by a consensus of informed readers.
Such a definition is compatible with the current research-based view of reading, namely that it is a complex interactive process whereby the reader obtains meaning from the text. In order to generate meaning the reader must bring to bear on the text relevant types of knowledge, among which are:
- knowledge of the relevant language- knowledge of the relevant script and orthographic conventions
- relevant knowledge of the world (eg knowledge appropriate to the topic, to the cultural context and knowledge of relevant text types).
The implications of this view for the teaching and learning of reading are:
- that learners' language development should be adequate to cope with the text that they are faced with
- that they should be able to relate to the content of the text;
- that they should have an understanding of the nature of the relevant script and orthographic conventions
Language learning is a process that takes place over time. The extent of learning depends on the duration, amount and richness of the input (ie what the learner hears or reads). Learning is mediated by the motivation and degree of engagement of the learner, and the type of language activities that the learners undergo (ie whether they are repeating phrases, singing songs, listening to the teacher, etc.). No distinction is made in this report between second and foreign language learning.
The initial stages of language learning will not be error-free, but characterised by deviancies due in large measure to deficiencies in input, false generalisations, and interference from the mother tongue. At any stage in learning "fossilisation" may occur - in effect, learning ceases, and the learner's language remains at a level below that of fluent users of the language.
While the implications of these views for English language teaching, and particularly the teaching of reading, in terms of what is the best practice, are not entirely agreed upon, there would be general agreement that the following factors play a role:
(i) teacher's English language proficiency
(ii) appropriacy of materials
(iii) amount of time devoted to the language
(iii) quality of teaching methodology
(iv) degree of learner motivation
(v) class size and general material provision
These factors are further mediated by situational factors that might be crudely summarised as the congruence of the educational operation with socio-cultural norms.
The definition of reading provided above (3.1) indicates that knowledge of the language of the text is essential in helping the learner to learn to read. Such knowledge enables learners to identify words from partial graphic clues, and to guess words through understanding of context, particularly in the early stages. (While it is now widely recognised that fluent readers have automatic recognition of written words, and therefore do not need to guess or "sound out" words, automatic recognition obviously assumes understanding of what is recognised). The attribution of meaning to the written words is clearly an integral part of reading.
A particularly careful approach is therefore needed with learners who have little knowledge of English if they are to learn to read successfully in the language. The methods of teaching initial reading outlined in Appendix B assume the learner knows the language and these methods therefore focus upon decoding (ie identification) of the written words. In initial reading of a foreign language (where the learner may not know the language) this can degenerate into mere "transcoding" ie converting the written form into a spoken form without understanding.
The testing of reading is difficult, since in reading in "real life" there is normally no observable response. Test techniques are unsatisfactory to the extent that they yield indirect measures of text comprehension. Furthermore all reading test formats tend to interfere with the process of reading. For a discussion of these issues, see Appendix C.
After classroom observation and initial piloting the test techniques decided upon for this project were a combination of (a) modified cloze for group administration, and (b) read aloud plus oral questions, for individual administration (see 4.4). These are techniques that are used in many different countries for the assessment of reading ability.
