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Formulae and Tables - Wood / textbooks for vocational training (GTZ, 122 p.)
	7. Hand Tools
		(introduction...)
		7.1. Measuring and Marking Tools
		7.2. Sawing Tools
		7.3. Planing Tools
		7.4. Mortising and Ripping Tools
		7.5. Drilling and Boring Tools
		7.6. Rasps and Files
		7.7. Other Tools

Formulae and Tables - Wood / textbooks for vocational training (GTZ, 122 p.)

7. Hand Tools

Hand tools are individually guided working tools by means of which action is taken on the object of work (workpiece) when the respective operations are carried out.

7.1. Measuring and Marking Tools

Marking tools serve the purpose of transferring sizes to the workpiece and of marking the transferred sizes.

Tool
Representation

Construction and use

back square

The back square serves for marking out right angles. It has a shorter, thicker part (head piece, stop) and a longer, thinner blade (rail). It consists of wood or steel.

mitre rule

Mitre rules serve to mark out 45° angles, with the shorter leg serving as stop.

bevel gauge

Bevel gauges are back squares where both legs can be adjusted to each other as desired (angles of any size can be formed).

scratch gauge

The scratch gauge serves for marking out straight scribed linears parallel to one side of the workpiece. The stop is adjustable and is arrested by wedges or screws.

Compasses

The compasses serve for taking and transferring sizes and for marking out circular arcs.

1 guide beam, 2 centring point, 3 slide, 4 pencil holder

vernier caliper with depth gauge

Length measurements are possible by placing the workpiece between graduation carrier and sliding member. The diameter of bore holes can be measured with the sensing elements. For determining the depth of bore holes and similar the depth gauge is used.

1 measuring surface of the graduation carrier, 2 measuring surface of the sliding member, 3 sensing element for determining the diameter of bore holes, 4 depth gauge

outside caliper

caliper-like measuring instrument (caliper) with inwardly bent legs for tracing and comparing diameter, lengths and tick-nesses

inside caliper

caliper-like measuring instrument (internal caliper gauge) with outwardly bent leg points for tracing and comparing bore holes, counterbores and similar

radius gauge/profile gauge

Radius gauges are templates like profile gauges and similar, by means of which the profiles of boards, but also of narrow surfaces can be checked.

7.2. Sawing Tools

Hand saws have triangular teeth and consist of tool steel. We distinguish between span-web saws and saws without span web.

Parts of a saw without span web

Figure 6 Parts of a span web saw

Parts of a saw without span web

Figure 7 Parts of a saw without span web

Kinds and dimensions of span-web saws (frame saws)

Kind of saw

Saw blade

length in mm

width in mm

thickness in mm

Saw pitch in mm

Setting width*) in mm

Applications

cabinet saw

700;800

25

0.7

5

0.4

for work in grain direction; trimming, cutting off

pad saw

700:800

40

0.7

4

0.25

finer cuts across the grain direction, for wood-based materials

fret saw

700

10

0.7

3

0.25

for sawing out bends

*) tooth set: alternate bending out of saw teeth to reach a cutting width which is greater than the blade thickness.

Kinds and dimensions of saws without span web

Kind of saw

length in mm

Saw blade width in mm

thickness in mm

Saw pitch in mm

Setting width in mm

Applications

foxtail

250-500

0.7-0.8

3-5

0.2-0.25

fine work, cutting of plywood and other materials

keyhole saw

300

1.0

4

0.35

for cutting out openings

fine saw

250

65

0.5

1.5

0.15

especially for mitre cuts

back saw

300

100

0.7

3-4

0.2

like fine saw

nest of saws: Saw blades of all span-web saws known so far can be fixed to a handle as required.

Tool geometry of hand saws

Kind of saw

Angle at the a tool cutting edge in °

a

b

g

cabinet, pad, fret saws

45

70

-25

foxtail saw, keyhole saw

60

60

-30

fine saw

65

50

-25

back saw

10

60

20

Recommendations for maintenance and use

Untension frame saws after use, turn the row of teeth inwards during transport, saturate wooden parts with linseed oil varnish or with polish to prevent impurities from getting into them; keep hand saws in a hangig position, clean the saw blade from impurities by means of petroleum or similar and protect it against rust by means of acid-free grease. Cover the teeth of saws without span web during transport and storage so that no injuries are possible.

7.3. Planing Tools

Parts of a plane

Figure 8 Parts of plane

Kind of plane

Cutting angle d in º

Applications

finish plane

45

without flap; coarse chip removal, for flattening and rough smoothing, chip thickness up to 1 mm

1 plane knife, 2 plane body, 3 chip hhole, 4 workpiece, 5 chip, 6 wedge angle, 7 cutting angle, 8 flap of the plane

double iron plane

45

with flap, smoother surface than with the finish plane, for flattening of finished surfaces

1 plane knife, 2 plane body, 3 chip hole, 4 workpiece, 5 chip, 6 wedge angle, 7 cutting angle, 8 flap of the plane

trying plane

45

with flap; basically a long double plane; for dressing of surfaces, for edging and jointing of narrow surfaces

smoothing plane

49

with flap; for smoothing of surfaces, for planing of end surfaces

1 plane knife, 2 plane body, 3 chip hole, 4 workpiece, 5 chip, 6 wedge angle, 7 cutting angle, 8 flap of the plane

rabbet plane

45...48

simple rabbet plane without flap, double rabbet plane with flap; for replaning and resmoothing of rebates

Recommendations for maintenance and use

Regularly clean the plane iron and the face of the plane; when putting the plane down, lay it on its side; the face of the plane must be even, if not, dress it and afterwards oil it slightly; replace faces of planes that are excessively worn by new ones; if the plane is blocking, check whether the flap is tightly fitting, the wedge is fitting or whether the pressure of the wedge is properly acting on the lower part of the plane iron.

7.4. Mortising and Ripping Tools

Mortising and ripping tools are hand tools for chiselling, mortising and turning operations.

Parts of the mortising and ripping tools

Figure 9 Parts of the mortising and chiselling tools

Kinds and dimensions of the mortising and ripping tools

Tool

Dimension of the blade

width in mm

thickness in mm

Applications

ripping chisel

light medium heavy

4...50
6...40
20...35

2.5...4
3.5...4.2
4.2...5

for mortising recesses, for recessing fittings, for mortising recesses at an acute angle

mortise chisel

2...26

12...15

for mortising orftenon holes and similar

turning chisel, flat

4...50

3.5; 4.5

making of turned bodies, soft wood working, finishing work;
a = 10...20^º
b = 20...30^º

turning chisel, hollow

4...50

3.5...6

hard wood working, roughing work;
a = 10...20^º
b = 40...50^º

Recommendations for maintenance and use

The tool must be clean and sharp; always clamp the workpiece, always chisel on the carpenter’s bench plate, not on the collets; further hints: like plane irons.

7.5. Drilling and Boring Tools

Drills are tools for making round holes.

Parts of a drill

Figure 10 Parts of a drill

Drilling and boring tool

Dimensions in mm

Applications

twist drill with roof-shaped point

diameter thread length

3.0...8.3 42...70

for drilling into hard wood and end-grained wood, into wood-based materials and metals

twist drill with a spiral flute

diameter overall length

2...12 120...170

for drilling into end-grained wood

auger bit

diameter length

6...30 185...250

for deep drilling into soft and hard wood

twisted auger

diameter length

3...10 125...160

mainly for predrilling for woods screw into soft wood; produces high splitting effect

centre bit

diameter length

6...50 80...140

drilling into cross pieces

grimlet

diameter length

2..10 90...200

for predrilling screw and nail holes, mainly into soft wood

wood countersinks

diameter length

16 and 20 100

for reaming bore holes, these get a funnel-shaped bevel

Aspects for the drill selection

Feature

Application

with square shank

for breast drill

with parallel shank

for drill chuck and machine

with entering tap

for cross-piece drilling

with chip groove

for deep drilling

with roof-shaped point

for non-fibrous materials and end-grained wood

with centre point

for exact advance

with feed thread

for manual work

without feed thread

for machine work

with short die head

for flat drilling

Recommendations for maintenance and use

Drilling and boring tools must be clean and well sharpened. When storing them, protect cutting parts. Keep them safe in a hanging or lying position in cabinets or cases, they must not contact each other. Remove impurities with hot water or petroleum after use, slightly grease them with acid-free grease against rust.

7.6. Rasps and Files

Rasps and files are hand tools for flattening and smoothing. Rasps have coarser cutting edges, files have finer ones.

Parts of rasps and files

Figure 11 Parts of rasps and files

Kinds and dimensions of rasps

Tool

Length in mm

Cross-section in mm

Application

flat rasp

1 width, 2 thickness

200...350

20 × 5...36 × 8

Rasps serve for coarse smoothing of round portions and recesses.

half-round

1 width, 2 thickness

200...300

18 × 6...30 × 10

round rasp

1 width

200...250

diameter 8 and 10 mm

Kinds of dimensions of files

Tool

Length in mm

Cross-section in mm

Application

rectangular file

1 width, 2 thickness

200 and 250

20 × 3.5; 25 × 4

for fine smoothing of round portions and recesses, reworking of rasped surface

flat/round file

1 width, 2 thickness

like rectangular file

triangular file

1 width

100...200

side length 6...17

especially as saw sharpening file, edge angle 60°, edges slightly rounded for machining the tooth gullet

Special kinds, e.g. as special saw and mill files

Recommendations for maintenance and use

Use only tools the tangs of which are straightly and firmly seated in the haft (stab injuries). Work in grain direction, if possible. Choose tooth spacing*) according to the wood quality (use files with coarse cut for soft or damp wood). Clean the tools from impurities by dipping them into hot water, brush them with a hand brush. Clean metal files with file brushes made of fine copper wires.

*) Cuts: Cutting edges lying closely one after the other and recessed or cut into the metal base body by machine.

7.7. Other Tools

Tool

Application

glass cutter

for cutting glass panels.
The glass is scratched under slight pressure by means of a diamond particle or a hard metal tip.

setting iron

for setting hand saws. The tool head provided with the recesses may have a varying number of notches; the notches are of different widths and correspond to the different thicknesses of the saw blades.

setting pliers

1 adjusting screw for tooth depth 2 adjusting screw for setting width

for setting hand and machine saw blades. The setting pliers are designed for various tooth depths and blade thicknesses; setting depth and setting width can be adjusted. The setting pliers allow more exact working than the setting iron.

setting pliers for tooth depths of up to 8 mm and blade thicknesses of 0.3...1.5 mm

1 adjusting screw for tooth depth 2 adjusting screw for setting width

setting pliers for tooth depths of up to 15 mm and blade thicknesses of 0.5...3.0 mm

hone

for honing (smoothing) the cutting edge.
Natural as well as synthetic stones are used, with the latter mostly having on both sides different grain sizes (rough honing, fine reworking). Water and oil are used as lubricants.

scraper

for smoothing hard wood surfaces.
Chip removal by sharp burrs on the longitudinal edges; 0.8 - 3 mm thick, made of tool steel

Tool Representation	Construction and use
back square	The back square serves for marking out right angles. It has a shorter, thicker part (head piece, stop) and a longer, thinner blade (rail). It consists of wood or steel.
mitre rule	Mitre rules serve to mark out 45° angles, with the shorter leg serving as stop.
bevel gauge	Bevel gauges are back squares where both legs can be adjusted to each other as desired (angles of any size can be formed).
scratch gauge	The scratch gauge serves for marking out straight scribed linears parallel to one side of the workpiece. The stop is adjustable and is arrested by wedges or screws.
Compasses	The compasses serve for taking and transferring sizes and for marking out circular arcs.
1 guide beam, 2 centring point, 3 slide, 4 pencil holder

vernier caliper with depth gauge	Length measurements are possible by placing the workpiece between graduation carrier and sliding member. The diameter of bore holes can be measured with the sensing elements. For determining the depth of bore holes and similar the depth gauge is used.
1 measuring surface of the graduation carrier, 2 measuring surface of the sliding member, 3 sensing element for determining the diameter of bore holes, 4 depth gauge
outside caliper	caliper-like measuring instrument (caliper) with inwardly bent legs for tracing and comparing diameter, lengths and tick-nesses
inside caliper	caliper-like measuring instrument (internal caliper gauge) with outwardly bent leg points for tracing and comparing bore holes, counterbores and similar
radius gauge/profile gauge	Radius gauges are templates like profile gauges and similar, by means of which the profiles of boards, but also of narrow surfaces can be checked.

Kind of saw	Saw blade
	length in mm	width in mm	thickness in mm	Saw pitch in mm	*Setting width) in mm**	Applications
cabinet saw	700;800	25	0.7	5	0.4	for work in grain direction; trimming, cutting off
pad saw	700:800	40	0.7	4	0.25	finer cuts across the grain direction, for wood-based materials
fret saw	700	10	0.7	3	0.25	for sawing out bends

Kind of saw	length in mm	Saw blade width in mm	thickness in mm	Saw pitch in mm	Setting width in mm	Applications
foxtail	250-500		0.7-0.8	3-5	0.2-0.25	fine work, cutting of plywood and other materials
keyhole saw	300		1.0	4	0.35	for cutting out openings
fine saw	250	65	0.5	1.5	0.15	especially for mitre cuts
back saw	300	100	0.7	3-4	0.2	like fine saw

Kind of saw	Angle at the a tool cutting edge in °
	a	b	g
cabinet, pad, fret saws	45	70	-25
foxtail saw, keyhole saw	60	60	-30
fine saw	65	50	-25
back saw	10	60	20

Kind of plane	Cutting angle d in º	Applications
finish plane	45	without flap; coarse chip removal, for flattening and rough smoothing, chip thickness up to 1 mm
1 plane knife, 2 plane body, 3 chip hhole, 4 workpiece, 5 chip, 6 wedge angle, 7 cutting angle, 8 flap of the plane
double iron plane	45	with flap, smoother surface than with the finish plane, for flattening of finished surfaces
1 plane knife, 2 plane body, 3 chip hole, 4 workpiece, 5 chip, 6 wedge angle, 7 cutting angle, 8 flap of the plane
trying plane	45	with flap; basically a long double plane; for dressing of surfaces, for edging and jointing of narrow surfaces
smoothing plane	49	with flap; for smoothing of surfaces, for planing of end surfaces
1 plane knife, 2 plane body, 3 chip hole, 4 workpiece, 5 chip, 6 wedge angle, 7 cutting angle, 8 flap of the plane
rabbet plane	45...48	simple rabbet plane without flap, double rabbet plane with flap; for replaning and resmoothing of rebates

Tool		Dimension of the blade
		width in mm	thickness in mm	Applications
ripping chisel	light medium heavy	4...50 6...40 20...35	2.5...4 3.5...4.2 4.2...5	for mortising recesses, for recessing fittings, for mortising recesses at an acute angle
mortise chisel		2...26	12...15	for mortising orftenon holes and similar
turning chisel, flat		4...50	3.5; 4.5	making of turned bodies, soft wood working, finishing work; a = 10...20^º b = 20...30^º
turning chisel, hollow		4...50	3.5...6	hard wood working, roughing work; a = 10...20^º b = 40...50^º

Drilling and boring tool	Dimensions in mm		Applications
twist drill with roof-shaped point	diameter thread length	3.0...8.3 42...70	for drilling into hard wood and end-grained wood, into wood-based materials and metals
twist drill with a spiral flute	diameter overall length	2...12 120...170	for drilling into end-grained wood
auger bit	diameter length	6...30 185...250	for deep drilling into soft and hard wood
twisted auger	diameter length	3...10 125...160	mainly for predrilling for woods screw into soft wood; produces high splitting effect
centre bit	diameter length	6...50 80...140	drilling into cross pieces
grimlet	diameter length	2..10 90...200	for predrilling screw and nail holes, mainly into soft wood
wood countersinks	diameter length	16 and 20 100	for reaming bore holes, these get a funnel-shaped bevel

Feature	Application
with square shank	for breast drill
with parallel shank	for drill chuck and machine
with entering tap	for cross-piece drilling
with chip groove	for deep drilling
with roof-shaped point	for non-fibrous materials and end-grained wood
with centre point	for exact advance
with feed thread	for manual work
without feed thread	for machine work
with short die head	for flat drilling

Tool	Length in mm	Cross-section in mm	Application
flat rasp 1 width, 2 thickness	200...350	20 × 5...36 × 8	Rasps serve for coarse smoothing of round portions and recesses.
half-round 1 width, 2 thickness	200...300	18 × 6...30 × 10
round rasp 1 width	200...250	diameter 8 and 10 mm

Tool	Application
glass cutter	for cutting glass panels. The glass is scratched under slight pressure by means of a diamond particle or a hard metal tip.
setting iron	for setting hand saws. The tool head provided with the recesses may have a varying number of notches; the notches are of different widths and correspond to the different thicknesses of the saw blades.
setting pliers 1 adjusting screw for tooth depth 2 adjusting screw for setting width	for setting hand and machine saw blades. The setting pliers are designed for various tooth depths and blade thicknesses; setting depth and setting width can be adjusted. The setting pliers allow more exact working than the setting iron.
setting pliers for tooth depths of up to 8 mm and blade thicknesses of 0.3...1.5 mm 1 adjusting screw for tooth depth 2 adjusting screw for setting width
setting pliers for tooth depths of up to 15 mm and blade thicknesses of 0.5...3.0 mm
hone	for honing (smoothing) the cutting edge. Natural as well as synthetic stones are used, with the latter mostly having on both sides different grain sizes (rough honing, fine reworking). Water and oil are used as lubricants.
scraper	for smoothing hard wood surfaces. Chip removal by sharp burrs on the longitudinal edges; 0.8 - 3 mm thick, made of tool steel