Supplies and Food Aid - Field Handbook (UNHCR, 1989, 296 p.) CHAPTER 5 - FIELD LOGISTICS OPERATIONS 5.1 Components of a Logistics System (introduction...) Chart 5.A: The Logistics Operation for Refugee Supplies and Food Aid 5.2 Considerations in Logistics Planning (introduction...) Chart 5.B: A Typical Field Logistics System 5.3 Inland Transport (introduction...) Chart 5.C: Assessment of Alternative Inland Transport Modalities Analyzing Transport Capacity Requirements and Utilization Chart 5.D: Calculating Transport Fleet Capacity and Requirements 5.4 Port Facilities (introduction...) Chart 5.E: Are Port Facilities Adequate? 5.5 Transport by Road (introduction...) Chart 5.F: Selection Criteria for Commercial Transport Chart 5.G: Terms for Commercial Trucking Contracts Fleet Maintenance and Fuel Supplies Chart 5.H: Average Vehicle Fuel Consumption Per 100 km* Fleet Movements and Waybills 5.6 Transport by Rail (introduction...) Chart 5.I: Assessing Transport by Rail 5.7 Transport by Water 5.8 Transport by Air (introduction...) Chart 5.J: Transport by Air - Assessment Checklist Charter Aircraft Chart 5.K: Contract Terms for Charter Aircraft Helicopters Chart 5.L: Helicopter Landing Site 5.9 Storage and Deliveries 5.10 Telecommunications 5.11 Transport and Storage Insurance 5.12 Management of the Logistics Function (introduction...) The Logistics Organization Chart 5.M: Management of the Logistics Organization Chart 5.N: Suggested Topics for Personnel Training Organizational Accountability Security Matters 5.13 The Logistics of Moving People (introduction...) Chart 5.O: Planning a Convoy to Move People Chart 5.P: How to Reduce Potential Deaths When Transporting People 5.14 Accountability in Logistics Operations (introduction...) Chart 5.Q: Accountability in Logistics Operations 5.15 Monitoring Logistics Operations

Supplies and Food Aid - Field Handbook (UNHCR, 1989, 296 p.)

CHAPTER 5 - FIELD LOGISTICS OPERATIONS

5.1 Components of a Logistics System

5.1.1 Logistics is the practical art of supplying material support to a defined group of beneficiaries. UNHCR's sources of material assistance for refugee programmes are suppliers and donors. Supplies and food aid must then be delivered to the refugees who are often located in remote geographic areas. Local transportation and communication infrastructures may have to be reinforced and processes for control and information feedback must be introduced, to ensure that the material assistance from the source reaches the refugees at the destination, in the quantity and quality provided.

5.1.2 Goods supplied from international sources are usually acquired on a C&F (cost and freight) basis, where the supplier is responsible for delivery to the port of entry in the host country. The field logistics system must, therefore, deal with the linear flow of material assistance from the port to the refugee sites. It involves the transportation of supplies and their storage at key transit points, with control throughout the system until they are finally distributed for the benefit of the refugees. The components of the logistics system are:

(a) the necessary hardware to move and store the goods, including a transport fleet of trucks, rail wagons, boats, barges, airplanes or other transport units, warehouses and other storage facilities, and special support facilities such as fuel depots, vehicle workshops, cold storage, milling sites and telecommunications links;

(b) records and reports to control the flow of goods through the system, including waybills, requisitions, release orders, issue vouchers, takeover certificates, stock control cards, storage ledgers, ration cards, receiving reports and distribution reports; and

(c) personnel to monitor the system by conducting checks and inspections, to manage and supervise the operation at key control points, and a multitude of drivers, porters, storekeepers and administrative staff.

5.1.3 When materials are obtained locally, suppliers should deliver them to the control point in the logistics system nearest the location where the goods will be needed. In this way, local supplies flow into the main logistics system and can be controlled from the receiving point in the same way as international supplies, while the suppliers are responsible for all the preceding supply and logistics phases.

Chart 5.A: The Logistics Operation for Refugee Supplies and Food Aid

5.2 Considerations in Logistics Planning

5.2.1 Develop a planning formula for estimating future overall refugee supply needs. The system cannot react to immediate needs, so you must know what will be needed where, and how long it will take to fulfil these needs.

5.2.2 Define the area of operations and ensure that key personnel are correctly situated for maximum effectiveness. The UNHCR Branch Office may be in the capital, but the logistics operation usually extends from the port of entry to the refugee sites, and includes all the transport, storage and telecommunications facilities inside that area.

5.2.3 Unify logistics operations to eliminate duplication of effort and lack of coordination. For example, where several organizations are moving supplies to the same refugee sites, consolidate the transport operation.

5.2.4 Plan redundancy in transportation. Anticipate vehicles out-of-service in a trucking fleet. Plan alternate routes or transport methods, in case of local disruptions such as the destruction or collapse of a bridge. It is imperative to keep the «supply pipeline» flowing.

5.2.5 Simplify the logistics system to reduce transit time, to minimize the number of stops and transfers, and to consolidate facilities. Supplies should never travel over the same route twice. Speeding up the operation and reducing opportunities for theft may increase operational costs, but overall costs will be reduced.

5.2.6 Locate warehouses centrally in the area they are intended to serve. Avoid situating warehouses in military zones or areas where hostilities occur, however, because the goods in storage can be a tempting target for looters.

5.2.7 Always maintain adequate buffer stocks. Keep enough supplies on hand to meet needs when the logistics operation cannot keep up with demand. Analyze seasonal peaks and potential requirements to maintain buffer stocks at specified locations, at a level of 20 to 50 per cent of annual provisions.

5.2.8 For each refugee programme, create a diagramatic sketch of the field logistics system, showing:

(a) sources of supply, key ports of entry and receiving points;
(b) in-settlement stores and/or distribution centres and the number of refugees served by each;
(c) modes of transport and the distances involved;
(d) key supply terminals and transshipment points;
(e) national, regional and district warehouses; and
(f) telecommunications links.

5.2.9 Inform UNHCR Field Programme Officers and other concerned refugee programme officials about the logistics system. Identify standard and alternate methods of transportation in the area of operations, transit times, carrying and storage capacities, and key responsibilities, including who to contact when making enquiries.

Chart 5.B: A Typical Field Logistics System

* Adapted from a diagram in UNICEF Assisting in Emergencies

5.3 Inland Transport

5.3.1 The primary function of the field logistics operation is to move supplies from their source in the host country to their intended destination, to arrive when they are needed in the quantity and quality required. Consider existing transportation options and limitations in the area of operations, equipment requirements and potential sources. Choice of transport is influenced by availability, reliability, speed and cost.

5.3.2 Avoid competing with other international agencies for limited existing government or commercial transport facilities, or duplicating necessary services. Work together to consolidate requirements and seek solutions which meet these transportation needs. Close collaboration with WFP is essential, as this UN organization normally supplies a large proportion of refugee food aid.

5.3.3. Evaluate alternatives using information gathered from national and local administrations, including the transport ministry and the military, local offices of other international aid agencies, transportation and bus companies, and other commercial enterprises, such as the oil companies. Identify the most reliable and economical means of moving anticipated quantities of refugee supplies.

5.3.4 Plan for contingencies before the actual need arises. Develop alternate routes simultaneously and be ready to use them as soon as problems are evident on the primary route. Breakdowns in the primary transport system are usually unpredictable, or its capacity may be insufficient during peak periods or when refugee needs increase. Whenever the primary route is vulnerable to natural, political or military actions, it is imperative to have an alternate route planned to avoid disruptions in delivery.

5.3.5 An important element in assessing potential transport modalities is the availability and location of support facilities for the transport fleet. Fuel, spare parts and maintenance are necessary, whether for trucks, locomotives and rail wagons, boats or aircraft, and possibly motorcycles, tractors or generators. Facilities and supplies must be situated conveniently in the area of operations, and have the capacity and reliability to maintain the selected transport units effectively.

5.3.6 In determining turnaround time to deliver supplies to destinations using proposed transport routes, do not underestimate the time it takes to load, unload and manoeuvre supplies, especially by hand. Consider using mechanical handling equipment where large quantities of supplies are involved. Providing local employment may be a secondary operational objective, but the use of forklifts, conveyor belts and other mechanized methods can significantly increase handling rates and also reduce damages.

5.3.7 Transport costs vary according to the distance involved, the type, size, weight and frequency of shipments, the mode of transport used, seasonal factors, and the overall supply and demand for transport services in the host country's economy. Commercial rates also depend upon operating costs, destination, probability of return cargo, and conditions en route (including security risks) which can affect fleet maintenance costs. Competition between major transport sectors, agencies or companies to carry all refugee supplies in the host country can encourage rate reductions and self-imposed improvements in capacities, facilities and services.

5.3.8 Once refugee supply routes and transport modalities have been established, continuously monitor actual requirements, logistics capacity and conditions in the area of operations. Listen to local staff and drivers who can report deteriorating conditions or potential local problems which will adversely affect the logistics operation. Adapt plans or take action to respond to any changes, expected or unexpected.

5.3.9 Transport efficiency and effectiveness can be assessed in terms of:

(a) cost, usually calculated per MT-km;
(b) transit times;
(c) security and safety, measured as minimal loss or damage;
(d) flexibility and reliability; and
(e) adequacy of control and monitoring procedures.

5.3.10 When existing transport capacity is inadequate, examine possible alternatives to increase capacity on established routes. Make plans to facilitate the repair or replacement of vehicles, locomotives, boats, barges, aircraft, ferries, bridges, rail lines, roads, etc. The government or the owners should undertake these tasks themselves, but they may not have the resources to do so. Technical or financial assistance may be negotiated to subsidize the upgrading of facilities. Avoid rehabilitating derelect transport units, however, as this is generally not timely, easy or cost-effective. Alternatively, provide additional transport units by borrowing, renting, contracting or buying, or implement contingency supply plans.

Chart 5.C: Assessment of Alternative Inland Transport Modalities

1. Available routes and possible transshipment points - road, rail, water, air transport.

2. Constraints on alternate routes - weight limits on bridges, ferry capacity, restricted water depth, adverse weather conditions.

3. Normal route volume and forecast changes in volume resulting from refugee programme logistics needs - will this increase hazards or cause rapid deterioration along the route?

4. Potential security risks to personnel, refugee supplies and transport units moving along each route.

5. Usability of routes year-round, because of seasonal/weather conditions -flooding, snow, muddy during heavy rains.

6. Telecommunications facilities between key points along each route.

7. Appropriate type, size and capacity of vehicle, rail wagon, boat or barge, or aircraft for each route, availability and cost per unit.

8. Availability, location and cost of fuel, maintenance facilities and trained personnel to keep the transport units operational.

9. Round trip time on each route for one trip from point of origin to destination, including loading and unloading.

10. Bottlenecks on each route and potential solutions in terms of materials, equipment, expertise, cost and timeframe to resolve.

Analyzing Transport Capacity Requirements and Utilization

5.3.11 To provide sufficient transport units for the refugee logistics operation at the right place and the right time, examine and quantify the following factors:

(a) What quantities of food and programme supplies must be transported? The quantities to be transported can be calculated in terms of total tonnage, once the programme needs of the refugees are known.

(b) Where are supplies required? Supplies must be transported from where they are situated to where they are needed. Goods situated in national, regional or district warehouses must be transported in sufficient quantities to meet the needs of the refugees served from the next staging or transshipment point in the logistics system.

(c) When are supplies needed? How soon the supplies are needed may affect the mode of transport selected, and the size of the transport fleet. One 10-MT truck can carry 300 MT in 30 days if the distance from source to destination requires only a one-day turnaround time, but if the 300 MT are required within 10 days, three trucks will be needed.

(d) How often are supplies needed? Transport requirements to supply refugee needs on a one-time basis, or to move excess quantities of supplies needed on a random basis, can be met by borrowed or contracted carriers. Transporting established quantities on a regular basis, such as the movement of monthly food rations, requires the provision of a reliable transport fleet over an extended period of time.

5.3.12 Moving supplies through the field logistics system, from where they are situated to where they are needed, in sufficient quantities and in a timely manner, assumes that the supplies are on hand at their source in the host country. Because a large portion of the material assistance for refugees in many countries is met from international sources or by local manufacturers, the quantities and timing of needs are factors which must also be considered in the front-end planning and acquisition phases of the supply process. Port handling capacity and practices can also affect the in-country availability of internationally supplied refugee assistance.

Chart 5.D: Calculating Transport Fleet Capacity and Requirements

1. What tonnage of supplies must be moved? In what given period?

2. What is the turnaround time, to move one load from its original location to its destination, and for the transport unit to return? Do not overestimate speed. Include loading time at source and unloading time at destination.

3. What is the carrying capacity of one transport unit?

· Allow 20 to 50 per cent contingent capacity for rest days and holidays, and to provide for maintenance and repair of the transport units.

EXAMPLE 1:

25,000 refugees are located 250 km from the regional warehouse. They require 400 g of cereals and 50 g of edible oil per day, distributed every 30 days. Travelling on gravel roads and tracks, trucks can cover 125 km per day. What size of truck fleet is needed?

* 10% margin accounts for voluminous cargoes or under-loading due to road conditions.

Allowing for contingencies, five 20-MT trucks should be provided to supply these refugees. The fifth truck should be on stand-by as a replacement or recovery vehicle.

EXAMPLE 2:

Ten 8-MT trucks are available to carry supplies to a refugee camp located 100 km over a dirt track from the district warehouse. The camp population is 30,000. Rations have been increased to 500 gms per day for distribution every 10 days, plus the trucks have been carrying an average of 30 MT of other supplies, such as tents and blankets, to the camp each month. Average turnaround time for a truckload is 3 days, including all loading, unloading and 20 per cent down time. The responsible implementing partner has requested 5 additional trucks. Is the request justifiable?

* 10% margin accounts for voluminous cargoes or under-loading due to road conditions.

Allowing for contingencies, the 10 trucks available should be more than sufficient to meet delivery needs. The request for 5 additional trucks cannot be justified in terms of needed capacity alone.

Note on Fleet Utilization:

If statistics show that the above fleet has been carrying an average of 400 MT per month to the refugee camp for the past year, what is the percentage utilization of the existing fleet?

Ten 8-MT trucks can carry 80 MT each trip. In 30 days, with a turnaround time of 3 days, each truck can make 30/3 or 10 trips.

Total potential tonnage = 80 MT x 10 trips = 800 MT

5.4 Port Facilities

5.4.1 Examine the facilities and services provided at ports of entry where refugee supplies are brought into the host country - seaports, airports or land border crossings. Knowing the potential quantities and types of programme supplies needed for refugees, are the port facilities adequate to receive, discharge and store supplies temporarily?

5.4.2 Assess port handling capabilities initially and verify them frequently to anticipate problems before they arise. Seek information from port, airport and government authorities, other international aid organizations, and related commercial enterprises, such as forwarding agents, freight carriers and exporting companies.

5.4.3 Losses may be caused by pilferage, spoilage, poor handling and transit storage practices, or diversion of goods. Delays in clearance can contribute to these losses and can also create a «bottleneck» in the supply and logistics system.

5.4.4 Port congestion, a common problem in many developing countries, may result from a sudden increase in the number of arrivals or the arrival of large shipments which follow too closely on each other. If seaport congestion is a recurrent problem, examine the docking and berthing capacities of the port. Using two 5,000 MT vessels may be more efficient than using one 10,000 MT vessel, because smaller berths may not be as congested as larger ones. Also, determine if there is another less congested port in the region with coastal freighter services for transshipment.

5.4.5 Port congestion is aggravated by delays in port clearance. Clearance activity rates can be severely constrained due to a lack of cargo handling personnel, equipment or transport units to remove the cargo from the port area. Where clearance procedures may cause delays or port handling and storage facilities are inadequate, consider alternatives to help improve port capacities, including the establishment of a bonded warehouse adjacent to the port, where goods can be moved directly from the carrier and held pending clearance.

5.4.6 Use reliable forwarding agents to speed up the port handling and clearance process. These agents should be knowledgeable about local practices and requirements.

5.4.7 To avoid excessive handling, programme supplies can be forwarded directly to their final destination once cleared from the port, if the consignee's agent receives proper instructions and arranges inland transport in a timely manner. Otherwise, goods must be moved to a warehouse near the port, unloaded and stored pending their dispersal to the destinations where they are needed.

Chart 5.E: Are Port Facilities Adequate?

Use this checklist to assess seaport capabilities, the most common port of entry for most large international UNHCR shipments. Adapt this list to assess airports or land border crossings.

· Number, type, size of vessels which can be handled.

· Number of berths, their maximum length and depth.

· Average vessel waiting time and discharge time.

· Port equipment, unit handling capacities and reliability.

· Bulk cargo and container handling equipment and capacities.

· Facilities for Ro-Ro ships.

· Automatic bagging equipment and supplies.

· Transit storage facilities.

· Availability of manual labour, size of the labour force, working hours, shifts and reliability.

· Ordinary rates of discharge per gang or per shift, both manual and automated.

· Port documentation requirements and procedures for clearing shipments.

· Operational constraints: port congestion, weather conditions, particularly at certain times of the year.

· Inland transport facilities: rail lines on or near the quay, access roads, barges or lighters for inland waterways, loading equipment.

· Condition/state of repair of all facilities and potential to increase capacity.

5.5 Transport by Road

5.5.1 When moving supplies inland, trucks provide greater flexibility than rail wagons, water barges, boats or aircraft, in terms of capacities, scheduling and routing. Provided destinations can be reached by road or track, appropriate vehicle selection is determined by:

(a) the conditions of terrain or weather which will be encountered en route;

(b) the nature and quantity of goods to be transported;

(c) the timeframe and frequency of each trip and the duration of the supply requirement at particular destinations; and

(d) the availability of fuel, spare parts and servicing facilities.

5.5.2 Consider potential sources of vehicles to fulfil transportation requirements. Borrow trucks from the government or other international agencies, especially to meet interim or short-term needs. Repair trucks which are currently out-of-service to increase existing capacity, but do not repair derelict vehicles. Contract with local commercial carriers or rent vehicles, to meet longer term needs or to increase capacities during peak transport periods.

5.5.3 If other options are not suitable, purchase a dedicated fleet of trucks with sufficient capacity to carry out the task. Try to standardize or limit the different types of manufacturers, makes and models used. Organizational resources and vehicle servicing facilities must be assured to manage and maintain a dedicated fleet. See Chapter 6, Vehicles, for additional information.

Chart 5.F: Selection Criteria for Commercial Transport

· Define requirements in a public tender, including schedules, tonnages, products/commodities, point of departure, destination and responsibility for loading/unloading labour.

· Request offers accompanied by proof of ownership of the proposed trucking fleet and proof of corporate financial stability and operational reliability, such as audited financial statements or bank statements, a bank reference and references from named previous clients.

· Conduct a first-hand inspection of the proposed trucking fleet to verify the number and mechanical condition of the vehicles.

· Select the contractor based on price competitiveness, proven reliability, number and condition of trucks available, and financial stability.

Chart 5.G: Terms for Commercial Trucking Contracts

1. Trucking costs are quoted per ton of cargo, per trip per truck to/from a specified destination, or per truck for a given time period, preferably with unlimited mileage. Vehicle capacity should be stipulated. Costs can include or exclude loading and unloading.

2. Costs of maintenance and vehicle insurance are borne by the contractor. Stipulate liability in case of accidents, loss or theft of the vehicle or its load.

3. If costs include the driver (and his mate), driver selection rests with the contractor, but review or specify driver qualifications carefully and reserve the right to request driver replacement if he should prove unsatisfactory.

4. Contractors should provide replacement vehicle(s) in the event of a time-consuming breakdown.

5. Make provision to terminate or extend the contract on short notice.

Fleet Maintenance and Fuel Supplies

5.5.4 Trucks require reliable fuel supplies, frequent maintenance and repair when operating under field conditions. If national fuel supplies are inadequate, import and store fleet fuel and lubricant needs. Check at the outset that there are no importation restrictions. The fleet also requires one or more mechanical workshop facilities, conveniently located in the area of operations, properly staffed and managed, with adequate equipment and spare parts.

5.5.5 Fuel consumption is difficult to estimate because the rate for each type of vehicle differs and depends upon the size of the engine, its state of repair, its age and local driving conditions. When travelling on poor roads or at low speeds, consumption can increase by as much as 35 per cent. The best way to determine local needs is to monitor fuel consumption and mileage for each vehicle to calculate average local consumption rates. Use these rates to establish fuel quantities for supplying field locations.

Chart 5.H: Average Vehicle Fuel Consumption Per 100 km*

* Adapted from ICRC Red Cross Cargo.

Petrol Engines		Diesel Engines
Sedan	8-12 litres	2-wheel drive pick-up van	10-13 litres
Pick-up van	14-17 litres	4-wheel drive pick-up van	13-16 litres
Land cruiser	21-27 litres	Land cruiser	14-17 litres
Minibus	15-18 litres	Small truck (3.5 to 8 tons)	18-28 litres
		Larger trucks	35-50 litres

Fleet Movements and Waybills

5.5.6 More supplies will move in less time if trucks move individually or in small groups. Mobile radios can facilitate communications between vehicles and with the fleet operations base.

5.5.7 For long distances in remote areas, or where there are security problems, create truck convoys. Appoint convoy leaders who are able to enforce discipline, make decisions and resolve problems. If possible, issue sufficient fuel for the round-trip, and assign a mechanic with appropriate tools to accompany the convoy.

5.5.8 Each vehicle should keep pace with the vehicles behind, by maintaining visual contact in the rearview mirror. In this way, the convoy stays together and the convoy leader sets the pace, travelling in the last vehicle. Maximum speed should be 50 km/h on hard-surfaced roads and 20 km/h on dirt roads or tracks. If a vehicle in the convoy breaks down, the convoy must stop and wait until repairs are effected or the convoy leader makes alternate arrangements. Trucks may discharge their cargo along the convoy route. Once empty, they should wait for the convoy's return if it will travel on the same route, or continue with the convoy if it is making a circuit.

5.5.9 Truck waybills must be established for every truckload, showing all information concerning the shipper, the consignee, the exact number of packages, the gross weight of the consignment, and the shipping marks. Truck weigh scales should be located near the fleet operations base or main supply warehouse to permit truckload and consignment weights to be determined easily and accurately. A packing list or issue voucher providing a detailed description of the consignment is annexed to the waybill. If trucks will cross borders, appropriate customs documentation, driver and vehicle identification and clearance are also necessary. The carrier or fleet manager prepares the waybill in triplicate:

- Copy 1 goes to the consignee.

- Copy 2 must be signed by the consignee and returned to the consignor.

- Copy 3, signed by the driver, stays with the shipper to be matched against the returned Copy 2 to confirm delivery.

5.5.10 Drivers transporting supplies should check their load carefully to ensure that the quantities and condition of the cargo coincide exactly with the information included on the truck waybill. Otherwise, they may be held responsible for shortages or damage.

5.5.11 The receiver of a shipment must sign the truck waybill to acknowledge delivery. Note any loss or damage on the waybill, indicating that the carrier is held liable for such loss or damage.

5.5.12 For additional information on organizing and operating a vehicle fleet, see Chapter 6, Vehicles.

5.6 Transport by Rail

5.6.1 If an adequate rail network exists between the port and the area of operations, rail is usually the cheapest alternative, especially for transporting large, bulky consignments such as food. Time and cost savings may be achieved if the railroad is used for transporting supplies on routes of 500 km or more.

5.6.2 Rail terminals or depots are rarely located exactly where they are needed. Assess facilities to determine if loading the rail wagons at the port and transshipping them from the rail depot to the warehouse at the destination justifies the distance, time, potential handling losses and relevant costs of using trucks to transport supplies directly from the port to the destination warehouse. There may be storage at the railhead or sufficient trucks must be available to move consignments promptly from the depot to the warehouse. Alternatively, suitable warehouse facilities adjacent to the railway depot may be provided, or a rail siding may be more conveniently located or constructed at the warehouse itself.

5.6.3 Whereas trucking rates vary with changing market conditions, rail rates are usually fixed for a given period. Try to get free transport or reduced preferential rates for moving refugee supplies, whether the railroad is privately or publicly owned.

5.6.4 The rail waybill, prepared by the railway agent, describes the contract of carriage, and provides instructions about handling, dispatch and delivery of a consignment. One copy is given to the shipper as proof of dispatch. Several copies accompany the consignment and are handed to the receiver at the destination. Other than a packing list, no supplementary documentation is necessary, unless the goods are transported across an international boundary. In this case, local enquiries can determine the nature of the documents required.

5.6.5 The receiver signs the waybill to acknowledge delivery of the consignment. A copy is not returned to the shipper, who should be notified separately that the consignment has arrived. If there is evidence of any loss or damage, the receiver must request a statement of damages from the railway company. Transit losses can be minimized when complete rail wagons are sealed, prior to departure, in the presence of the shipper's agent and opened at the destination in the presence of the receiver or other consignee agent.

Chart 5.I: Assessing Transport by Rail

1. Extent of the rail network and condition of the track/railbed in the area of operations.

2. State of repair and availability (including any seasonal variations) of locomotives and rail wagons.

3. Location/nature of rail facilities at the port and at the destination(s).

4. Reliability and timeframe to meet delivery requirements. Current transit times from port to destination(s).

5. Capacity of the railroad, current traffic and capability to increase traffic to meet refugee supply needs.

6. Railway resources and facilities to maintain or increase existing capacity.

7. Security of rail consignments at departure and arrival points, as well as en route.

8. Nature of the supplies to be carried, and type/number/capacity of rail wagons which can be used - tankers for fuel, closed wood- or steel-floored wagons for goods, flatcars for cargo containers.

9. Scheduling, documentation, reporting requirements and coordination for rail shipments. Railway management effectiveness and efficiency.

10. "Bottlenecks" in the railway network where trains carrying refugee supplies may be delayed, such as transit points where trains must be divided for different destinations or to overcome geographic obstacles, including mountain passes or rivers.

11. Other constraints affecting the use of rail transport.

12. Tariff structure compared to other modes of transport. Rates usually decrease as distance increases.

5.7 Transport by Water

5.7.1 Navigable waterways often go where there are no roads or rail lines, and the only remaining options are airlifting supplies or moving the refugees to a more accessible location. Inland, coastal or inter-island water routes may be used to transport supplies part or all of the way to refugee sites. Selecting this mode of transport depends upon:

(a) existing practices and current use of the waterway;

(b) availability of cargo-carrying boats, lighters, or barges and tugs, their number, capacity and state of repair;

(c) docking facilities and personnel at the point of departure and the destination for mooring and for handling, storing and transshipping the cargo;

(d) documentation requirements and permits for carrying cargo;

(e) constraints and seasonal considerations;

(f) costs and contractual options; and

(g) potential to increase capacity in terms of cost, expertise and time-frame.

5.7.2 Gather information to assess this option from government waterways administrations and port authorities, shipping companies, boat owners and captains, and other international aid organizations.

5.7.3 Contracts for transporting supplies by water can be established on a per shipment basis, with the rate stated per ton of cargo for the given destination. Or boats can be chartered to carry refugee supplies exclusively for the term of the charter agreement. Negotiate reduced rates whenever possible.

5.7.4 in any shipping contract, ensure that the terms state clearly the responsibilities of the contractor (vessel owner and/or captain), the shipper and the consignee, including provision for insurance and the assignment of liability for the vessel and the cargo in the event of an accident, loss or damage. Clearly indicate who pays port fees, and state that the vessel owner is responsible for fuel, maintenance and repair of the contracted vessel.

5.7.5 A Bill of Lading should be prepared for each shipment with a large shipping company, carrying the same legal ramifications as a Bill of Lading for an international shipment (see Chapter 4, Receipt of Shipments). In other instances, local practices will prevail, but in every case an itemized listing of each shipment must be provided, for the captain to acknowledge delivery of the cargo on board, and for the consignee to confirm receipt of the total consignment at the destination.

5.8 Transport by Air

5.8.1 Aircraft are the fastest, most reliable means of transport, but airlifting refugee supplies is expensive, and should only be considered as a last resort, when supplies are urgently needed in a location where no other solution is feasible. Transport by air may be used to supplement land or water transportation in country programmes where the area of operations is geographically vast and land or water routes are long, to move personnel and high-value, low-volume supplies. In emergencies, airlifting may be an initial response to the situation, but funds are better spent providing the means to move much larger quantities of supplies using other modes of transport.

5.8.2 Together with the geographic desk and SFAS, assess the potential use of aircraft in the overall logistics plan. Aircraft require extensive, carefully organized ground support at both their departure and arrival points. Obtain information from civil aviation authorities, airport managers, airlines operating from local airports, air cargo companies and brokers, the aircraft pilots themselves, and other international aid organizations who have used airlifts in the area.

5.8.3 The minimum length of runway required and the maximum load capacity are directly related to the altitude and temperature at the airports concerned. Load capacity is reduced for longer flights, as more fuel must be carried.

5.8.4 To improve air cargo handling facilities, runways can be extended to take larger aircraft, usually a necessity in rural or remote areas. Lack of equipment may require the use of aircraft carrying self-unloading devices or military-style aircraft with ramps, such as the Hercules C130. For major emergency airlift operations involving large quantities of supplies, consider providing high-lift fork-lifts.

5.8.5 Approach the air force or airline companies, whether privately or nationally owned, to obtain agreements for free or special rates to transport refugee supplies. Ensure that royalties are waived if the use of a non-national carrier is planned. Be ready to give details of the consignment, including contents, number of packages, type of packing, dimensions, total volume and weight.

5.8.6 Alternatively, use a forwarding agent, air freight broker or consult SFAS at Headquarters. The following types of air freight services may be selected:

(a) Consolidated shipments - Small customer consignments to a given destination are grouped together to benefit from lower rates for larger shipments, but this may result in delays awaiting sufficient cargo prior to departure, or on arrival when the shipment must be re-sorted into individual consignments.

(b) Split charters - Consignments are consolidated, as above, but usually using a non-IATA airline which operates all-cargo aircraft. Costs are lower, but only larger consignments (normally 500 Kg or more) are accepted, and services are provided only to places with considerable cargo traffic.

5.8.7 When supplies are being transported by air, the carrier or agent prepares an air waybill which specifies the contract of carriage for handling, dispatch and delivery of the shipment to the consignee. Normally the shipper prepays the shipping charges, and no payments are necessary when the consignment is picked up at the airport of destination. The carrier or agent notifies the consignee on arrival, and turns over a copy of the air waybill, the packing list and any other shipping documents which are attached to Package Number One of the consignment.

Chart 5.J: Transport by Air - Assessment Checklist

1. Applicable air regulations, traffic rights for chartered flights, any related fees. Restrictions on night-flying.

2. Airport, air strip and landing facilities, including fuel availability, navigational aids and radio equipment, and types of aircraft that can be handled at the point of departure and at the destination in the area of operations.

3. Cargo handling capacities, equipment, any size or weight limitations, storage facilities.

4. Operational constraints, including security, weather and current air traffic.

Airports - Detailed Information Requirements

· Name, official designator, exact location and elevation/altitude.

· The length, width and orientation of the runway(s), type of surface, nature and position of any obstructions, and state of repair.

· Runway and approach lights, navigational aids, air traffic control and communications arrangements.

· Aircraft servicing facilities, type and cost of aviation fuel available, startup generators and other ground equipment, air crew rest facilities.

· Operating temperatures, local weather conditions and any seasonal variations.

· Types of aircraft which are available and can operate from the airport, their maximum load capacity, usable volume, loading and unloading constraints, runway requirements, range of operation and cost.

· Availability and condition of taxiways and parking areas, number, capacity and condition of forklifts, trolleys, tractors, aircraft cargo container handling equipment, availability of fuel and equipment operators, limitations on size and weight of individual packages/crates.

· Number, size, capacity, condition, security of cargo sheds and open storage areas (availability of pallets and tarpaulins), quantities of cargo on hand and available space for refugee supplies, lighting in sheds, loading and unloading areas, the source and reliability of the power supply.

· Normal handling capacity for the cargo facility, shifts, hours of work for airport and customs personnel, number of available staff including tally clerks and labourers.

· Method of granting landing rights, airport charges, royalties on non-scheduled carriers, and possibility of waiving charges for UNHCR charters.

· Potential to increase current capacity.

Charter Aircraft

5.8.8 When the need to charter an aircraft is established, discuss requirements with local charter companies, the government and other aid organizations to determine the availability of appropriate aircraft. Consult the SFAS Shipping and Insurance Officer at Headquarters, who can identify international charter services who can position aircraft locally. There are two types of aircraft charters:

(a) Trip charter - The aircraft is chartered for a round-trip to one or more specified destination (s), normally for a basic rental charge, plus the cost of fuel actually used. All other expenses are borne by the contractor. Cargo can be loaded up to the allowable capacity of the aircraft, within the limits for the airports concerned and prevailing conditions in the area of operations.

(b) Time charter - The aircraft is chartered for a specified number of days, weeks or months. Costs are usually based on a defined rate per hour of actual flying time, subject to a guaranteed minimum number of hours in a stated time period, including the hire of the aircraft and crew, maintenance and insurance. Costs for these services vary considerably with the type of aircraft and current conditions in the area of operations.

5.8.9 Charter services must be arranged by written agreement or contract, whether the aircraft is loaned from a government or other organization, or leased from a commercial enterprise. Prior to signature, submit all charter contracts to Headquarters for review and approval.

5.8.10 Charter services may be necessary to transport refugees, emergency supplies, UNHCR-accredited field staff, local government representatives or journalists visiting UNHCR programme locations. Plan every flight through a flight coordinator, and provide clear written instructions to the crew. Ensure that vehicles are available to transport passengers, luggage and cargo on arrival at the destination. Whenever possible, an official of the logistics organization should accompany the flight.

5.8.11 When all of the space or load capacity on a chartered aircraft is not needed, consider offering it to other aid organizations operating in this area, either free-of-charge or on a pro rata basis. A reciprocal arrangement may be opportune at some future time.

Chart 5.K: Contract Terms for Charter Aircraft

Seek special advice before establishing a charter agreement. Certain clauses in the contract are obligatory and require particular attention:

· Aircraft type, registration and markings. Also, year of manufacturer, number of hours flown, value of the aircraft, name of the civil aviation authority who issued the certificate of airworthiness, name and location of the aircraft operating base.

· Maximum payload and/or maximum passenger capacity.

· Radio equipment.

· Nationality and qualifications of the air crew, provision of standby replacement crew.

· Who pays loading and parking fees.

· Who deals with formalities to obtain traffic rights.

· Responsibilities for aircraft fuel and maintenance. Cost benefits may accrue if UNHCR provides duty-free fuel.

· Lease of generator, other ground equipment and storage for the aircraft.

· Responsibilities for cargo and passenger handling.

· Duty hours of the crew, hotel accommodation, living expenses and transport between the airport and the hotel.

· Aircraft and cargo insurance.

· Security of the aircraft while parked on the ground.

· Possible causes and liability for delays or grounding of the aircraft.

· Contract cancellation fees.

Helicopters

5.8.12 Chartered helicopters permit UNHCR staff and other refugee programme officials to visit remote sites quickly, to inspect the refugees' situation and to resolve problems. As is the case with any charter operation, schedule helicopter flights through a flight coordinator, as far in advance as possible. Plights require numerous clearances and the submission of a flight plan, usually at least 24 hours before take-off. All persons flying in the helicopter also require proper security clearances.

5.8.13 Refugee programme officials at the planned destination may be asked:

(a) to prepare a landing site;
(b) to arrange security when the helicopter lands and while it is on the ground; and
(c) to send a vehicle to meet the passengers.

Chart 5.L: Helicopter Landing Site

· 25 m x 25 m clear, flat area, preferably marked in whitewash with a large "H".

· A large, easily visible flag or windsock, to indicate wind direction.

· No trees, electrical wires, or other tall hazards within 50 metres.

· Surface damped down with water just before helicopter arrives, if possible, to reduce dust churned up by the rotorwash.

5.9 Storage and Deliveries

5.9.1 At receiving or transshipment points in the logistics system, supplies must be stored properly to maintain their quality, to protect them from pilferage or theft, and to keep track of their location. Provide suitable facilities at each location with sufficient capacity for the supplies that will be received, including the necessary handling equipment and stock control systems. Repair existing warehouses or establish new warehouses. Stored items may include blankets, tents, cooking sets, basic, complementary and supplementary food rations, buffer stocks, and other programme items.

5.9.2 One way to speed deliveries and reduce losses may be to eliminate forward field warehouses, and ship directly to refugee sites. However, regional or district warehouses provide greater flexibility for field staff in timing distributions to the refugees and in receiving other programme supplies. Holding refugee supplies at the district level enhances security. It also provides a buffer supply to reduce direct dependence on the national transport fleet and to permit more rapid response to contingency requirements. With good access, deliveries to regional or district stores can often continue in conditions which preclude delivery to the sites. Then when conditions improve, tractors, four-wheel drive vehicles or carts can be used to carry supplies on to the refugee sites.

5.9.3 To meet storage requirements for supplies, examine existing facilities to determine their suitability in terms of location, capacity, security and state of repair. Optional sources of needed warehouses may include existing government stores or commercial warehouses which can be borrowed or rented, other available buildings which can be converted for use as a warehouse, local construction of appropriate facilities, or importing and erecting storage tents or prefabricated buildings.

5.9.4 For additional information on establishing and operating proper storage facilities, see Chapter 7, Storage and Warehousing.

5.9.5 Schedule the movement and delivery of refugee supplies to ensure that goods arrive in a timely manner at the location where they are needed. To do this effectively, officials in charge of scheduling must know what supplies (type, quantity and quality) are on hand at each storage location in the logistics system at any given time. They must also know what needs must be met, where and when, with sufficient advance notice to permit them to move and position these supplies at the destination.

5.9.6 Provide officials in the logistics organization with information on programme plans and scheduled distributions to the refugees. Based on the types and quantities of supplies needed, their current location in the logistics system, and the timing and location of planned use, supply targets can be established for delivery to each destination.

5.9.7 Accountability within the storage and delivery system is essential:

- Stock balances at each storage location must be reported and monitored regularly.

- Records of supplies issued from one location must be reconciled with reported receipts at the destination, so that transit losses are identified and corrective action is taken.

- Statistics on quantities dispatched and received must be compared with planned supply targets to ensure that the transport fleet is operating effectively, and that planned refugee and programme needs are being fulfilled.

- Information on the release and distribution of supplies in the refugee programme must be reconciled with the balance of supplies on hand, and used to prepare utilization reports to donors, sponsors, governments and other interested parties.

5.10 Telecommunications

5.10.1 Good telecommunications between key locations in the area of operations - central logistics control unit, ports, airports, major warehouses, distribution centres, transport fleet operations base(s) and mobile units - permit a rapid exchange of information concerning the movement of programme supplies and factors affecting the movement. Unless telephone and telex connections are both extensive and reliable, it may be necessary to establish a radio network which should include both voice and teleprinter communications.

5.10.2 The appropriate government authority must approve the operation of The radio network and assign the operating frequency. In general, the higher the frequency the greater the operating distance. Multiple frequencies may be necessary to provide communications in variable conditions. Many governments also require special permits to import and/or erect radio transmitters. Check with other UN or international aid agencies for local requirements, especially if they are already operating a network. Help may also be available from the government ministry responsible for refugee matters, to expedite the application.

5.10.3 Determine needs for base and mobile units, aerials and antennae. Equipment requirements depend upon the operating frequency, the geography and distances between stations, and the number of locations to be equipped. Generators or batteries may be necessary to provide a reliable power source.

5.10.4 Examine suitable aerial and equipment locations. If possible, the aerial for a base station should not be surrounded by buildings or trees, should be located 10 to 20 metres above the ground, and the co-axial cable linking it with the transceiver should be as short as possible. A qualified technician should provide installation and training services.

5.10.5 When the need for radio communications has been established, request advice from the Telecommunications Manager at Headquarters, who will evaluate the requirements and advise on the most suitable equipment, taking into account both the economy and efficiency of circuits. Provide the following information:

(a) type of links required (voice, teleprinter, etc.);
(b) whether requirements are operational or administrative;
(c) geographical location(s) of radio-links and distance(s) between stations;
(d) nature and type of terrain (e.g., mountainous, flat dry land);
(e) expected volume of traffic to be exchanged;
(f) personnel who will handle the equipment; and
(g) power supply available locally.

5.10.6 Define protocols, disciplines and procedures for operating the radio network. For example, establish pre-set times for regular contacts between particular locations. Keep records of all outgoing and incoming messages, whether they are voice or teleprinter communications.

5.11 Transport and Storage Insurance

5.11.1 All UNHCR supplies and food aid must be covered by insurance during inland transport and storage. Simply the knowledge that goods are insured, and losses or damages are claimed, promotes greater care and a reduction in losses. To protect their own interests and to give an added measure of loss or damage prevention, local insurance companies often appoint their own representatives to oversee loading and unloading and to supervise the handling of refugee supplies.

5.11.2 When commercial transport is used to move supplies, carriers are usually required by law to provide only a minimum coverage. In some countries, there may not be a minimum at all. Any claim against the carrier must be filed in writing immediately on receipt of a consignment, or within a specified period of time if a consignment is lost in its entirety. Regardless of the coverage, always hold the carrier liable in writing for any loss or damage in transit, to protect the interests of both UNHCR and any insurance company involved.

5.11.3 For every consignment of supplies, verify that goods are adequately insured while in transit to their destination, and that the carrier has sufficient third party liability insurance to protect UNHCR in the event of an accident. Also, confirm that our implementing partners have proper insurance coverage when goods are turned over to them for transport and storage. Refugee supplies should be insured from the point where international coverage terminates to the point of final use or distribution. Investigate the availability of local insurance, or consult the SFAS Shipping and Insurance Officer at Headquarters.

5.11.4 The most comprehensive coverage for UNHCR consignments, other than local purchases, can be obtained through SFAS at Headquarters, under the UNHCR Worldwide Open Cover Marine Cargo insurance policy. Coverage for the entire value of the consignment extends from the warehouse at the point of departure to the warehouse at the destination. All claims against this policy are also routed through Headquarters, alleviating the need to deal with numerous insurance companies, agents, insurance adjusters and the terms of various different policies and coverages. Provided standard information is given, the UNHCR insurance broker will insure the consignment and follow up to recover any claims. For additional information on UNHCR shipping insurance and related insurance claims, see Chapter 4, Receipt of Shipments.

5.11.5 For refugee supplies in storage, the building owner and the organization assigned overall responsibility for the warehouse must provide proper insurance coverage. Local insurance should be available. Information for insurance purposes includes a description of the warehouse, its size, location, type of construction, protection and security measures. Normally, the value of the goods stored is reported periodically, with variable premiums based on this reported value.

5.11.6 One option for providing adequate insurance coverage during transit and storage may warrant further consideration and discussion: use the proceeds generated from the sale of packaging materials to pay local insurance premiums. Any settlements for loss or damage could also be credited to the sales proceeds account.

5.12 Management of the Logistics Function

5.12.1 Logistics can be the lifeline of a programme operation, where the wellbeing of the refugees depends upon the receipt of food aid and other supplies. It is often the most expensive part of an operation, in terms of transport requirements, fuel and spare parts, maintenance and warehousing. The logistics system is also subject to abuse, especially when there are competing local demands for food, fuel and other refugee supplies. Moving food usually has first priority, but other logistics functions include the movement of non-food items, such as household supplies, medical needs, equipment and people.

5.12.2 Each refugee situation encounters its own logistical problems which must be overcome. Port, transportation or warehousing facilities in the host country may not have the capacity to receive and deliver the required quantities of assistance. Transport routes may be inadequate. Trucks, rail wagons or locomotives, river boats or ferries may need repair, or fuel supplies may not be sufficient or reliable. Refugees may be situated in areas remote from normal transportation routes.

5.12.3 Successful implementation of logistics solutions depends, in a large part, on a good logistics staff with the technical expertise, local knowledge and management abilities to succeed. Select the correct agency to control the system, provide a clear line of command, and define the responsibilities and working relationships between UNHCR, the implementing agency which controls the logistics operation, the host government, other implementing partners and international aid organizations, commercial enterprises involved, and other outside experts and consultants. The key functions in the operation are:

(a) overall planning, management and control;

(b) coordinating purchasing, receiving and transportation, including fuel and spare parts;

(c) allocating and scheduling supplies to intermediate warehouses and on to the refugee sites;

(d) planning and implementing the distribution system in consultation with camp administrators and responsible implementing partners; and

(e) controlling and monitoring operations in the field, including stock inventories, transport fleet management and maintenance, and distribution systems.

The Logistics Organization

5.12.4 To meet the overall supply needs of the refugees, one organization must control and coordinate the logistics operation, with a clear mandate from UNHCR, the host government and the other international organizations that it serves. The logistics organization must mobilize or develop the necessary logistics capacity and provide effective and efficient management of the overall logistics operation, from receipt of supplies in the host country, to storage, delivery and distribution at their destination, where the goods are used to benefit the refugees. Segments of the logistics operation may be delegated to other agencies or contracted to commercial enterprises, but control and coordination rests with the assigned logistics organization.

5.12.5 Selecting the right leaders for key management positions in the logistics organization has a direct influence on the success of the operation. Logistics managers must be politically sensitive because of all the different parties who potentially may be involved. Changes need agreement at the national level, and clear direction on requirements at lower administrative levels. Managers must have a flexible but pragmatic approach to problem-solving, with strong emphasis on systems design and analysis. The operation will benefit if managers have a propensity to identify key issues promptly, to make decisions, and to follow through, not only to ensure implementation of changes, but to verify that the desired results continue to be achieved once the system is established.

5.12.6 Develop a commodity management plan which emphasizes a systemic approach to the introduction or improvement of inland transport, storage and delivery of all refugee supply needs. Provide an interlocking set of clearly defined roles, and use empirical methods to continually review and revise the plan based on operating experience.

5.12.7 Personnel policies and procedures are required for selection, training, remuneration, disciplinary action, performance evaluation and promotion. Define responsibilities, procedures and lines of communication by supplying each staff member in the logistics organization with a detailed job description. Staff retention is encouraged through market-related salary adjustments, improved working (and living) conditions, and good supervision. Consider the importance of rest periods, recreational activities and leave to balance the intense demands of the logistics operation, as well as the personal security of the logistics staff. Employee recognition and incentive programmes can also be beneficial to reward good performance and long service.

5.12.8 Prepare a procedures manual or handbook which outlines organizational policy and procedures, and illustrates common forms used throughout the logistics operation. Provide other organizational tools employees need, in the form of training (in the local language, if necessary), equipment and tools to fulfil their duties, and stationery supplies for record keeping and reporting purposes.

Chart 5.M: Management of the Logistics Organization

1. Does the organization demonstrate effective, experienced and informed leadership?

2. Does the organization have a detailed commodity management plan which is reviewed and updated periodically?

3. Are the operational goals defined, in such a way that they can be monitored and evaluated easily?

4. Does the organization have a clear idea of its place and role in the assistance community, with well-developed official and operational relationships which are necessary to fulfil its responsibilities?

5. Has a complete personnel policy been defined, in compliance with local labour laws, with formal hiring and dismissal procedures and complete records of all staff?

6. Has the organization established detailed job descriptions for all staff, outlining each employee's duties and responsibilities, and provided to them at the time they sign their employment contract?

7. Is staff training, personal and professional development for national staff, given high priority?

8. Is the organization knowledgeable about, and in touch with, the refugee population it seeks to supply? Are the field monitoring staff experienced in similar operations?

9. Are established systems and procedures under constant review to find and implement further improvements?

Chart 5.N: Suggested Topics for Personnel Training

Management:

· Organization theory and design
· Work planning techniques
· Delegation, work assignment, and charting responsibilities
· Communications and reports
· Financial management and budgeting
· Management by objectives
· Evaluation and performance assessment
· Public and community relations
· Information management

Supervisors:

· Planning, communications and leadership
· Motivation, problem-solving and working with people
· Quality control
· Organizational policies and procedures
· Specific job-related training

Field Logistics Staff:

· Site management
· Financial management and accounting
· Storekeeping and inventory control
· Fuel management
· Field monitoring
· Office procedures and communications

Secretarial Staff:

· Administrative tasks and duties

· Priorities, planning and time management

· Communications - reception, telephone, telex

· Typing and filing - general rules, document layouts, spelling, punctuation, use of a dictionary, filing system and maintenance

Most staff can benefit from language, business and report writing courses.

Organizational Accountability

5.12.9 Establish a budget for the logistics operation, to make cash available when and where it is needed to pay for fuel, repairs, labour and other operating expenses. Freedom to make expenditures is a distinct advantage, but proper accountability for budgetary control, disbursements and reporting must also be instituted. Designate persons authorized to expend funds, specify the purposes and limitations on the amounts, and prescribe accounting procedures for the control and replenishment of imprest accounts.

5.12.10 Assign tasks for various units, supervisors and staff within the logistics organization, indicating priorities and the sequence for introducing new procedures and stricter controls. Plan regularly scheduled and appropriately sized dispatches, with all consignments supervised and recorded by designated staff during loading, before departure, and when unloading at the destination. Identify the staff responsible for maintaining receipt, transport, storage and distribution records of refugee supplies, who are accountable for the quality and quantity of goods placed in their charge. Formalize site distribution arrangements, ensuring cooperation between field monitoring staff, camp administrators and the beneficiaries themselves.

5.12.11 Set goals to provide real targets to achieve in the forthcoming period, against which results can be measured. Shortfalls or problems encountered can be analyzed to find solutions for further implementation. Targets can also be used as incentives, to speed up operations or to reduce maintenance and repair costs. But their advantages must be weighed against their potential disadvantages, especially when due care is sacrificed for speed.

Security Matters

5.12.12 Given the high local value of many commodities in the supply chain, and the tensions which can result from geographical and psychological isolation in many refugee settings, pay particular attention to the security of refugee supplies and the personnel who manage and handle them. There is often an implied risk of harm to those who are assigned custody of supplies at any point in the logistics operation, sometimes within the organization itself, between employees and supervisory staff. The degree of stress involved can be affected by many minor incidents, such as quarrels which demand resolution, apparently spontaneous jostling or crowding, stone-throwing children or disturbed adults who must be restrained, delays or go-slows in commodity handling, or poor or misinterpreted communications. Disciplinary actions (for example, dismissal) can result in serious violence.

5.12.13 Such situations can be diffused before they begin, through the support of concerned authorities at the national level, frequent contacts between interested parties at all levels, and the strengthening of administrative controls and support systems for the staff involved. Storesmen, watchmen, porters and guards must be paid regularly and on time, and have defined and monitored responsibilities to prevent pilferage, and to provide incentive to stay at their post and fulfil their duties. Security problems are minimized if regional, district or site administrative areas are centralized in an enclosed compound with controlled access and exit. Compounds can include offices, storage facilities, a workshop, fuel storage and a commodity checkpoint.

5.12.14 All accidents, serious incidents, thefts, fires, third party damage claims and other breaches of security must be fully documented and reported to senior logistics managers- Details of the situation must include identification of who was involved, the consequences, authorities asked for assistance, outcome, disciplinary action or settlement and to whom, and any related recovery action from insurance or another source.

5.12.15 Transport checkpoints can be used to monitor deliveries of supplies. They may also serve as authorized rest stops or overnight parking areas, holding or relay points for transport unit tasking, supplementary fuel depots, or information points for drivers. Selection and training of competent checkpoint staff improves predictability and reliability of supply deliveries. The main elements for an effective checkpoint operation are:

(a) prior warning by radio of the identification numbers and cargos of transport units due to arrive at the checkpoint;

(b) checking the vehicle cargo against the commodity types and amounts specified on the waybill; or

(c) checking vehicles on their return, to ensure that proper delivery and receipt procedures were followed, with all cargo delivered to the correct store at the destination, and a properly signed and receipted waybill being returned; and

(d) recording details on the waybill about the time of arrival/departure of each vehicle. Use stamps, unique for each checkpoint location, to provide proper control.

5.12.16 Remote logistical sites in the area of operations are less isolated and accountability within the system is improved by instituting regular monitoring and reporting procedures. Periodic meetings provide an opportunity for field staff from different field locations and more senior managers to exchange information, especially when planning and implementing changes. Contacts between management personnel and field staff can be maintained using radio communications and by having monitoring staff visit field locations regularly.

5.13 The Logistics of Moving People

5.13.1 A supplementary function of the logistics operation may be to evacuate or relocate people. Successful people movements require thorough planning, careful control and orderly execution. Good liaison between supervisory staff at the point of origin and at the destination is essential to coordinate the convoy schedule and the arrival of the refugees.

5.13.2 The guidelines provided here can help in planning people movements and anticipating potential risks and problems. Seek additional advice from individuals with relevant experience in the local area, such as managers of local passenger transportation companies or personnel in international organizations who have conducted similar operations.

5.13.3 The number of scheduled stops along the route will depend upon the distance to be covered and the prevailing temperature. More frequent stops are necessary in cold temperatures than in warm temperatures.

Chart 5.O: Planning a Convoy to Move People

1. Select a route which Is the safest and shortest route from the place of origin to the destination.

2. Use trucks with a low centre of gravity, or buses, which are inspected and proven to have good lights, brakes, tires and steering mechanisms. Never move people in trailers.

3. Make provision for personal effects to travel with the owners. Consider this when planning the number of people in each vehicle, or move personal affects in the trailer attached to the truck carrying the owners. Put livestock in a separate truck in the same convoy.

4. If water points along the route are inadequate, include a water tanker or trailer in the convoy.

5. Consider vehicle repair facilities along the route. If inadequate, include a breakdown/recovery vehicle in the convoy.

6. Conduct pre-departure health checks. Never move sick or severely malnourished people without using specific transport (ambulances, specially equipped buses, with medical personnel on board).

7. Record the number of people getting on the vehicles at the place of origin, and getting off the vehicles at the other end. Use hand-held counters or check off passengers against established lists. Medical and registration records should accompany them.

8. Do not overcrowd the vehicles. In the event of a breakdown, passengers may have to double up.

9. Provide a convoy escort, one person with authority, riding at the end of the convoy, in communication with the lead vehicle.

10. Assign one or more medical staff, with a fairly sophisticated medical kit, to accompany the convoy.

11. Take care of the drivers. To drive safely, they need adequate meals, rest breaks and time for vehicle maintenance. Consider using relief drivers.

Chart 5.P: How to Reduce Potential Deaths When Transporting People

1. Reduce speed:

- to minimize shocks and possible injuries caused by the jolting of the vehicles;

- to control motion sickness and vomiting (especially for people who are malnourished or dehydrated); and

- to control dust which causes vomiting.

2. Place personal belongings, bedding or sand on the floor of the vehicle. Personal belongings and bedding cushion shock. Sand stabilizes the vehicle by adding weight and lowering the centre of gravity.

3. Control food at departure and way stations. People should not be moved (except in a crisis) less than four to six hours after eating. Ritz crackers are known to suppress vomiting.

4. Control dehydration with water, tea or oral rehydration solution. In hot areas, use covered vehicles to provide shade. Move people during periods with moderate temperatures. Stop frequently.

5. Control hypothermia in cold areas by reducing speed, stopping frequently, providing blankets and tea.

CAUTION: Enclosed trucks may cause exhaust fumes to back up into the passenger area, especially at slow speeds or if winds are blowing from an adverse direction.

5.14 Accountability in Logistics Operations

5.14.1 The logistics organization responsible for the receipt, storage and delivery of refugee supplies must implement a system for recording, reporting and monitoring the flow of goods from receipt to final distribution. The system of accountability, as a minimum, should include:

(a) adequate financial controls, records and reports, incorporating costing and budgetary control techniques to aid in continuous performance and cost efficiency analysis and evaluation at all levels in the organization, from receipt and port handling through to distribution;

(b) integrated documentation and information reporting procedures for the purposes of planning, controlling, directing and improving the movement of supplies and food aid; and

(c) statistical information to fulfil the needs of management, UNHCR and donors.

5.14.2 Information from the accountability system may be used to monitor the achievement of established goals and objectives, to evaluate ongoing results and levels of performance, to improve management, cost efficiency and resource utilization, and to plan future requirements to support the refugee programme more effectively.

5.14.3 An effective accountability system should not cause delays in the logistics operation. Define requirements clearly and instruct those involved accordingly. Staff at all levels in the organization, and other related organizations or enterprises who interface with the system, must understand and acknowledge their responsibilities for fulfilling information needs.

5.14.4 Ensure that customs clearance and receiving procedures and documentation requirements are established. Specify the types of documents needed, the number of copies, timing and routine. Provide complete, correct consignment delivery addresses to all concerned parties. Notify SPAS at Headquarters and local suppliers in advance of actual delivery to avoid delays caused by inadequate documentation.

5.14.5 Monitor the inland movement of goods using a system of waybills. A minimum of two copies must travel with each consignment - one remaining at the destination to serve as a receipt voucher, and one signed and returned to the dispatcher to confirm that the goods have been received. Other copies may be needed to invoice or pay for transportation, or for supplementary record keeping.

5.14.6 Storage records and reports must be implemented to monitor the type and quantities of supplies being held in warehouses throughout the area of operations, and all receipts and dispatches. Distribution reports and release orders are necessary to confirm that supplies have been used for their intended purpose.

5.14.7 Establish handling procedures and schedules for the movement of documents and information in the system. Identify appropriate information routing using mail, pouch, courier or radio, through government facilities, implementing partners or sub-offices, and the frequency of these services. Specify to whom documents, reports and other information should be sent.

Chart 5.Q: Accountability in Logistics Operations

Easily accessed information from records and reports generated by the system should answer the following questions:

What?	Types of supplies handled, for which refugee programmes/projects and implementing partners.
How much?	Quantities involved.
Was received where?	Specified control point(s) in the area of operations.
From whom?	Source of the supplies.
And moved how?	Modes of transport involved.
At what cost?	Breakdown of capital expenditures and recurrent costs of operations, including personnel, labour, administrative and maintenance costs for handling, transport and storage by location, for organizational and contracted services.
With what losses?	Details of losses, including explanations of any differences between receipts and dispatches or distributions, apparent causes, and related corrective or recovery actions.
Distributed/released to whom?	End utilization of the supplies provided.
And reported to whom?	Final reports concerning the use or disposition of the goods.

5.15 Monitoring Logistics Operations

5.15.1 To monitor the logistics operation, select specific, quantifiable indicators to measure the achievement of objectives. Monitor these achievements, watch for deviations, and identify areas where improvements are required to enhance performance or modifications are necessary to meet changing situations.

5.15.2 Carefully analyze reports from operational units on supply movements, stock levels, rates of supply utilization, expenditures against budgets and reported accomplishments. Make regular observations and unannounced spotchecks of actual supply movements, stocks and storage facilities, distributions and end-use of supplies. Examine transport functions, including truck utilization, fuel consumption, turnaround times, frequency and nature of repairs, and driver performance. Also review the organizational processes for staff supervision and training, contracting, storage and distribution.

5.15.3 Organize occasional sample surveys to determine the adequacy of established indicators and targets, the actual end-use of inputs, final results and benefits. Develop your own checklist of things to look for, based on the standards, guidelines and suggestions outlined in this Handbook.