Improved Food Drying and Storage Training Manual (Peace Corps, 1982, 276 p.) Handouts List of handouts Handouts 1A to 3B Handouts 4A to 5C Handouts 6A to 8B Handouts 10A to 14C Handouts 17A to 18D Handouts 20A to 27D Handouts A1 to A5

Improved Food Drying and Storage Training Manual (Peace Corps, 1982, 276 p.)

Handouts

List of handouts

Handout	Handout
Number	Title
1A	Proposed Training Program Schedule
1B	Session Descriptions
1C	Introduction To Training
1D	Blank Two-Week Schedule
2A	Tips for Drying
2B	Data Collection Sheet
3A	Food Drying and Storage Community Assessment Questions
3B	Guidelines for Community Assessment
4A	Sample Food Drying and Storage Timeline
5A	A Catalog of Dryers and Stores
5B	Food Drying Considerations
5C	Food Storage Considerations
6A	Smoke Test Data Collection Sheet
7A	Effective Group Survey
7B	The Decision-Making Process
7C	Feedback and the Helping Relationship
8A	Non-Formal Adult Education
8B	Extension, Training and Dialog
10A	Materials and Tools List
12A	Guidelines for Process Observer
13A	Tests for Dryness
13B	Percent Moistures for Grains and Legumes
13C	Summary of Temperature Factors
13D	Conditioning and Pasteurizing
14A	Sample Cost/Benefit Analysis of a Solar Dryer
14B	Lifecycle Unit Cost Analysis of a Solar Dryer
14C	Economic Comparison of Two Maize Stores
17A	Mid-Program Evaluation
17B	Blank One-Week Program Schedule
17C	Coat of Arms
18A	A Partial List of NFE Activities
18B	Some Guidelines for Motivating and Teaching Groups
18C	Role-Play Guidelines for Extension Workers
18D	People's Theater
20A	Evaluation of Method Demonstration
20B	Planning a Method Demonstration
20C	Method Demonstration Guidelines
21A	Use of Vegetable Oils to Protect Stored Beans
26A	Evaluation Checklist for Dryers and Stores
27A	Program Evaluation
27B	Appropriate Technology Information and Resource List
27C	Descriptive Bibliography of Recommended Texts
27D	Solar Drying and Improved Food Storage Bibliography
30A	Certificate of Completion
A1	Technical Solar Dryer Design Information
A2	Solar Siting
A5	The OFPISA Problem-Solving Model

Handouts 1A to 3B

HANDOUT 1A: Proposed training program schedule

Proposed training program schedule

HANDOUT 1B: Session Descriptions

These session descriptions provide a brief outline of each session offered in this training program, the length of each session and whether it is an extension, extension practice, technical or technical practice session. They are listed in chronological order, as they appear on Handout 1A, "The Proposed Training Program Schedule". When using this list to rewrite the schedule, be sure to balance classroom sessions with outdoor sessions, take weather patterns (morning clouds, afternoon rains, etc.) into account and include enough sessions to make the program meet your needs.

Session Number	Number of Hours	Session Title and Description
1	2	Introductions and Scheduling (extension). Interviewing and identifying
		resources within the group, introductions, listing expectations and
		scheduling at least the first week of the training program.
2	2	Tour of Solar Dryers (technical practice). Evaluate existing dryers and
		stores for applicability and usefulness, prepare foods and load the
		dryers. Loading the dryers is repeated during the program.
3	4	Community Assessment (extension practice). List community
		assessment questions, perform an assessment, prepare a report and
		report back to the group.
4	2	Timeline (technical). Develop a dryer and storage timeline for each
		climatic zone of the country, noting temperature, humidity, crop prices,
		planting and harvest times, wet and dry seasons.
5	2	Design Considerations (technical). Discuss advantages and
		disadvantages to traditional methods, reviewing slides and a catalog of
		dryers and stores from around the world, discussing detailed
		considerations.
6	1	Smoke Tests (technical practice). Perform experiments to discover the
		relations between solar dryer design variables.
7	3	Model Design and Construction (technical practice). Design and build
		dryer and storage models and present the designs to the group.
8	2	Adult Learning (extension). Look at how adults learn best, the methods
		used in the training program and how adult learning can be used in the
		villages.
9	2	Natural Cooling and Rainy Season Drying (technical). Research and
		discuss these other types of drying and storage before the design and
		construction sessions.
10	2	Design of Dryers and Stores (technical practice). Develop a complete
		design of a dryer or store that can be built during the training program.
11	22	Construction (technical practice). Build the device designed in Session
		10. The 22 hours is spread over 6-7 days.
12	2	Facilitation Skills (extension practice). Develop a list of effective
		facilitation criteria as a group. The list will be used throughout the
		program and in extension work.
13	2	Unload dryers (technical practice). Unload the dryers (from Session 2),
		test for dryness and reload the dryers. This session repeats.
14	2	Economics (technical practice). Comparing city and country economics
		research and deliver an economic presentation.
15	2	Storage Pests and Their Control (technical practice). Research and
		report on mold, insect and rodent food damage, control and prevention.
16	2	Other Technologies (technical). Discuss technologies other than dryers
		and stores to meet the expectations of the group.
17	2	Mid-Program Evaluation (extension). Look back at the first week and
		reschedule the second week, if necessary.
18	2	Introduction to Non-Formal Education (extension). Observing and
		discussing different NFE techniques that can be used at the village
		level.
19	2	Non-Formal Education Presentations (extension practice). Present the
		NFE activities developed in small groups.
20	2	Introduction to Method Demonstrations (extension and technical
		practice). Observing and participating in a technical method
		demonstration that transfers pest control information. Prepare a
		method demonstration.
21	2	Practicing Method Demonstrations (technical and extension practice).
		Presenting and participating in method demonstrations.
22	2	Local Development Projects (extension and technical). Discuss and
		critique local technical and community development projects.
		Volunteers from the group present their own projects.
23	2	Independent Study (technical or extension practice). Research or
		practice a technical or extension topic that isn't covered in the program.
24	2	Chemical and Non-Chemical Pest Control (extension practice). The
		group decides what is needed in the area of pest control and
		coordinates the session.
25	2	Action Plan (extension practice). Look ahead 3 and 6 months and
		explain how you will implement the information from the program.
26	4	Assessment and Modification (technical practice). Test and improve
		the devices built during the program.
27	1	Program Evaluation (extension practice). Look back at the program
		and provide feedback to the trainers on the good and bad parts.
		Review resources and bibliographies.
28	3	Preparation of Presentations (extension practice). Prepare a non-
		formal education activity to present the devices built during the
		program to the group.
29	3	Presentation of Devices (technical and extension practice). Present the
		devices built, answer questions and receive feedback.
30	1	Wrap-Up (extension). Announcements, certification ceremony and final
		clean-up of the construction site and tools.
		Optional Sessions
A1	2	Technical Solar Dryer Design Information (very technical). Review and
		discuss technical design information, psychrometric charts and sample
		calculations.
A2	2	Solar Siting (technical practice). Learn where to place a solar collector
		(such as a solar dryer) so that it won't be shaded by buildings or
		vegetation.
A3	2	Preparing Fruits and Vegetables (technical practice). Research, report
		and practice the details of preparing fruits and vegetables for loading
		into a solar dryer.
A4	2	The Uses of Dried Fruits and Vegetables (technical practice).
		Research, report and practice rehydrating, cooking, packaging,
		conditioning, pasteurizing and storage of dried foods.
A5	2	Problem Solving (extension practice). Solve a problem that is causing
		difficulties in the program so that the program can continue.

HANDOUT 1C: Introduction to Training

There are two threads running through this training program: one of technical training, in the areas of food drying and storage, and one of extension training, in the concept of appropriate technology community development

The main focus of the program, of course, is the technical training of Peace Corps Volunteers and their Counterparts, to be able to design, build, use and maintain improved food dryers and stores. But from an extension standpoint, the technologies themselves will not do anyone any good if they are not presented as community development tools. The community development philosophy that has been inherent in CHP/Farallones training programs over the years is one that takes people into account and builds on what they know to help them solve their own problems.

Technologies that do not take a people and their culture into account are doomed for failure and it does not take long to develop a list of improperly introduced technologies. But technologies that use locally available resources, both human and materials, to meet community-felt needs, have a good chance of succeeding and growing. Improving traditional technologies is more acceptable to a community than importing completely foreign ones. Technologies are only tools with which true community development work can proceed.

This training program is designed to model and parallel community extension work. Participants are asked to take a full and active role in their own education. They are urged to cooperate with others to identify and use the talents and resources that are available to the group and to practice skills that help motivate people, instill within them a feeling of self-confidence and involve them in the process of their own education.

The approach to training is based on the principles of non-formal education and is designed to strike a balance between structured learning and guided, yet independent discovery. The sessions, resources and methods that are included reflect the belief that people are capable of self-direction and creativity when encouraged to apply their knowledge and skills in ways that are relevant to their lives. It is the intent of the program to offer a framework to the participants to apply what they have learned in training to service in their own communities.

This program offers skill training in all stages of technical development: the design, construction operation, maintenance, evaluation and modification of prototype devices. The designs selected will be as consistent as possible with the realities of rural areas in most parts of the world and are based on the following criteria: affordable and low in capital investment, simple and adaptable in both design and scale, easily understood by people with little or no formal education, responsive to local needs and capabilities, able to be constructed, operated, maintained, repaired and managed by the users, based on the use of renewable sources of energy and local resources, both human and material and characterized by the potential to contribute to local cooperation, self-reliance and good health.

Throughout the program, there is a focus on the principles and techniques of non-formal education and adult learning, methods and approaches to solving problems, development issues, cross-cultural perspectives and the process of assessment and evaluation.

HANDOUT 1D: Blank Two-Week Schedule

Blank Two-Week Schedule

HANDOUT 2A: Tips for Drying

Operation of a dryer is not complex, but requires conscientious, systematic attention. Each operator should develop a satisfactory method of drying to match her or his climate, daily schedule and type of food. The following guidelines will help establish a successful system:

1. Choose fresh, sound, firm and ripe foods. Do not use over-ripe foods. Weigh food and record weights.

2. Wash fruits, vegetables and roots before drying. Scrub, if necessary.

3. Slice fruits, vegetables and roots into thin, uniform pieces, less than 1cm thick. Cut and prepare foods quickly. Keep foods clean.

4. Prepare other foods by shelling, hulling, peeling or slicing. Threshed grains dry faster than whole heads. Smaller pieces dry faster. Some foods dry better if blanched first (i.e., potato, cassava, yams, etc.).

5. Spread foods evenly on drying racks. Thinner layers dry faster. Load dryer at 10kg of food per square meter of tray when using a pre-heater and 5kg of food per square meter, when using a dryer without a pre-heater.

6. Cover food to keep out insects which could lay eggs in or on drying foods. Keep out animals, dirt and children.

7. Dry food with warm, dry, circulating air. Stir or turn foods 2-3 times per day to promote even drying.

8. Test for dryness after three days. Food is "dry for storage" when dried weight is 1/5 or fresh weight, in the case of fruits and vegetables; 3/4 of fresh weight in the case of grains and legumes. Dehydration time depends on humidity of the air, type of food, food moisture, percent sunshine, etc.

9. Use a thermometer to maintain optimum drying temperatures by manipulating outlet vent damper. Check dryer temperature at hottest part of the day and set damper to give best drying temperature.

10. Condition food in large containers lined with clean cloth for 1-2 weeks. (See Handout 13D.)

11. Pasteurize at 80°C for 10-15 minutes or 57°C for an hour to kill eggs and larvae. This also destroys the germination possibility of grains and legumes as seed.

12. Store dry fruits and vegetables in small, airtight, moisture, insect and rodent proof containers in dark, cool, dry and clean places. Store grains, roots, and legumes in places with good air circulation.

Specific Drying Tips

(See Handout 13C for "Maximum Temperatures of Food, Feed and Seed")

Beans:	Scratch surface with a wire brush to speed drying. Boil for 2 minutes, drain, spread evenly to dry. Optimum/maximum temperatures: 55°C/70°C.
Ground Nuts:	Remove dirt from shells. Dry in shell or out of shell. Do not expose to extreme heat. Optimum/maximum temperatures: 30°C/35°C.
Yams, potatoes:	Wash, peel, slice, grate or shred.
Cassava:	Use local drying procedure to remove poisonous or toxic substances.
Maize:	Remove husks, dry 2-4 cobs thick. Or shell cobs and spread 4-15cm thick.
	Optimum/maximum temperature: 40°C/45°C.
Squash seeds:	Separate from stringy material, rinse, spread evenly.
Coconut:	Place half coconut, cut side up, for a day, then remove meat from shell, cut up or grate to continue drying.
Cocoa:	Ferment beans, spread evenly and turn once or twice a day until dry.
Fish:	Split in half, if large. Dry in the shade (out of direct sun) to reduce color changes. Keep below 55°C to avoid cooking.
Coffee:	Use ripe berries only. Spread single layer thick.
Banana, Mango:	Use ripe fruit, slice 1/2cm thick, spread one layer thick, turn 2-3 time per day, do not over-dry.
Rice:	Dry down to 18% moisture within 2 days of harvest (easily done by air-drying) and to 13-14% within a week (using a drying mat, platform, floor or improved dryer). Do not dry too quickly or cracking will occur.

HANDOUT 2B: Solar Dryer Date Collection Sheet

Type of Food:
Preparation of Food:
Placement of Dryer:
Type of Storage:

Date	Time	Weight	Outside Air Temp.	Dryer Temp.	Vent	Outside Humidity	Weather	Comments

HANDOUT 3A: Food Drying and Storage Community Assessment

In order to determine if or how solar dryers and improved food storage devices are appropriate technologies that meet a community-felt need, it is necessary to find answers to the following questions, plus other questions you may determine as necessary.

1. What foods are commonly dried:
2. What time of year does drying occur for each of the foods listed in number 1:
3. How long does each food take to dry:
Under sunny conditions:
Under cloudy conditions:
4. Are there any problems with traditional drying methods?
5. What are the local tests for dryness:
6. How is each type of food stored:
7. How long does each type of food last in storage:
8. Are there any problems encountered with stored dried foods:
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

HANDOUT 3B: Guidelines for Community Assessment

In teams of 2-4, use community assessment techniques, such as questionnaire, interview, observation, conversation or a combination of these to gather information about the food drying and storage methods and procedures used in this area. In gathering the information, please follow these guidelines:

- All team members should participate actively in all phases of the exercise.

- Information gathering should be conducted in a sensitive and careful manner (always ask permission). Don't prowl or intrude.

- Concentrate on using appropriate communication skills: respect others' privacy and values. Listen and report accurately, be patient, report facts, not what you wish you had found.

- Limit the scope of the assessment or you may be overwhelmed.

Your report should include:

- A summary of data collected.
- A copy of questions asked.
- Methodology used.
- Resources consulted during the assessment.
- Suggestions for improving the assessment.
- Recommendations for improving food drying and storage using methods that are within cultural and economic restraints of the community.

Handouts 4A to 5C

HANDOUT 4A: Sample food drying and storage timeline

Introduction:

This sample timeline shows one way to present a large amount of information in a brief form. It shows:

1. The Humidity Levels during the year
2. The Temperatures during the year
3. Food Prices during the year
4. Wet and Dry Seasons, and
5. Planting, Growing, and Harvest times

Sample food drying and storage timeline

How to read the planting and harvesting times:

What this timeline tells us:

1. The wet season is generally from May through September
2. The humidity is low during the dry season (60%) and high during the wet season (90%)
3. The temperature is warm (30°C) during the dry season and cool (15°C) during the wet season.
4. Food prices drop at the end of the rainy season when crops begin to come in, then steadily rise all year.
5. Rice is planted at the beginning of the rainy season and harvested at the beginning of the dry season' a good candidate for a solar dryer and improved store.
6. Some farmers double crop maize and wheat. The maize would need a rainy season dryer because of its harvest time. The wheat could be solar dried.
7. Vegetables, grown during the wet season, could be sun dried.
8. Cassava is planted and harvested year-round

Descriptions of the Dryers and Stores

Fig. 1: In Zambia, fish are split in two and placed on hut roofs in the morning. They take one or two days to dry. Placing them on the roof keeps them away from animals, children and ground dust.

Fig. 2: Drying on tarps, mats, or plastic sheets can be found all around the world. Some areas will have specially made concrete drying floors. By raising the food off the ground, using platforms, air is allowed to pass up through the food and it dries somewhat faster.

Fig. 3: By hanging vegetables (mostly onions, garlic and peppers) under the eaves on southfacing walls, the Nepalese take advantage of the sun, avoid the rain and keep their foods away from the dirt, animals and people on the street.

Fig. 4: In Java, rice is threshed soon after harvest and spread on raised mats. The children are responsible for turning the rice so that it will dry faster.

Fig. 5: Cambodians salt their catfish (which draws some moisture out of the fish and also preserves it from bacterial infection) then split them open and spread them on decks to dry.

Fig. 6: Inverted cones, made from wooden sticks, catch a large percentage of the sun's light in Kenya because that country is on the equator. The food is placed on the inside of the cone to keep it away from animals and children.

Fig. 7: By placing foods (usually grains, maize) in the attic of a cookhouse, the heat from the smoke dries the food while the smoke repels insects. The food takes on a smoke smell and flavor, which is favored by some and disliked by others.

Fig. 7 Traditional dryer/storage in attic of cookhouse, Kenya

Fig. 8: This air-dryer will hold many "ties" of rice after it is harvested so that the rice does not have to be stacked up in the field where it can easily mold. The device is made from local "bush poles" and can be covered by a thatch roof to keep off rain during the wetseason harvest.

Fig. 8 Improved post-harvest air-dryer for rice, Sierra Leone

Fig. 9: The typical "banda" of West Africa uses a large amount of wood to smoke a small amount of fish (usually 6kg wood per 10kg fish). Smoking dries the fish, repels insects and adds flavor.

Fig. 9 Fish smoker, Ivory Coast

Fig. 10: A simpler model of Fig. 8. This can easily be set up, taken down and the horizontal poles can be carried home, loaded with "ties" of rice.

Fig. 10 Improved post-harvest air-dryer for rice, Sierra Leone

Fig. 11: The standard VITA dryer has small inlet vents near the ground and virtually no high outlet vents. It can be improved by giving it larger inlet vents and large, screened vents at either end of the single-glazed roof.

Fig. 11 Improved VITA solar dryer

Fig. 12: The Philippines solar tent dryer is low-cost and easy to build and operate. It can be improved by making all of both ends of the dryer screened. One of the plastic sides can be made with black plastic (especially for fish).

Fig. 12 Solar tent dryer, Philippines

Fig. 13: The IRRI dryer can dry 400 kilograms of paddy in three or four days, depending on the weather conditions. The outlet chimney can be made larger to improve air flow. The plastic must be replaced as it wears out (about 1-3 times/year).

Fig. 13 International Rice Research Institute solar rice dryer, Thailand

Fig. 14: Coffee (or other foods) can be stirred to maximize drying. At night and in case of rain, it can be pushed under the "tent" to minimize spoilage.

Fig. 14 Concrete drying floor with foul weather cover, Columbia

Fig. 15: Here the VITA dryer has been improved with a fuel-fired "stove" attached so the smoke - and heat - travels through the dryer, under the foods and exits through the stovepipe at the other end. The smoke does not flow through the food.

Fig. 15 VITA solar dryer with fuel-fired rainy season dryer attached

Fig. 16: This improved dryer/store has a removable roof that can be placed on the "handles" at either end to increase the drying tray area. The roof can be replaced at night or during rain and the rat-guards keep away the rats.

Fig. 16 Improved air dryer/store, Sierra Leone

Fig. 17: This dryer has a fairly small solar collector/preheater for the number of trays inside, but the clear sides would act to collect solar energy also, thus improving performance. In a warm climate this dryer would work well.

Fig. 17 Solar "chimney" dryer with pre-heater

Fig. 18: This dryer was made totally from local materials. The trays slide out during the day and slide under the roof cover at night and during rainy periods.

Fig. 18 Improved air-dryer for cocoa and coffee, Sierra Leone

Fig. 19: This dryer makes an improvement over the raised platform by covering it with plastic. Air rises up through the slatted tray bottoms, the food is raked to improve drying and there is no need to worry about rain.

Fig. 19 Walk-through, plastic-covered, solar coffee dryer, Columbia

Fig. 20: a small, direct-gain solar dryer with low inlet vent in front and high outlet vent in back.

Fig. 20 Solar cabinet dryer, Syria

Fig. 21: A variation on Fig. 19. If this dryer becomes much more enclosed, some people will refuse to enter because of the high temperatures.

Fig. 21 Plastic-covered concrete drying floor for coffee, Columbia

Fig. 22: An interior view of a dryer similar to Fig. 19. Note the stirring rake and the storage cupboards under the drying trays.

Fig. 22 Plastic-covered, walk-through solar coffee dryer, Columbia

Fig. 23: These large trays roll out from under their cover in the morning and roll back at night and in case of rain. Several levels of trays allow a large quantity of food to be dried or stored at once.

Fig. 23 Pull-out, rolling carts for drying coffee Columbia

Fig. 24: Simple design, easily made from local "bush poles", with mosquito netting trays and vents, surrounded with plastic. Stands about 1-1/2 meters high.

Fig. 24 Solar cabinet dryer, Indonesia

Fig. 25: Maize is stacked neatly around the perimeter, butt out, with the majority of the cobs randomly stacked inside. The roof is lifted to remove maize.

Fig. 25 Traditional corn barn, Ghana

Fig. 26: A basket, resting on a stone, covered with a thatch roof. Could be improved by raising it off the ground, muddying the basket and securing the roof to protect from birds. Rat-guards should be placed on the legs, 1m high.

Fig. 26 Traditional Gottera, Ethiopia

Fig. 27: Calabashes come in all sizes and can be grown in just about any shape if trained early. Their shape makes them almost rat-proof and if the "fill-hole" is well-sealed, it is virtually airtight.

Fig. 27 Traditional calabash seed stores, Kenya

Fig. 28: This store could still be improved by raising it at least one meter, giving it ratguards and a tight-fitting door.

Fig. 28 Improved dry-store hut, Benin

Fig. 29: Chad is a very dry place, so moisture is not that often a problem. This woven basket has been muddied and tightly sealed.

Fig. 29 Traditional muddied basket, Chad

Fig. 30: Individual stores in a communal setting. These are only one meter high at the peak of the roof. Many small stores reduces risk of large-scale damage.

Fig. 30 Traditional muddied stores, West Africa

Fig. 31: A woven basket, raised off the ground to reduce ground-moisture migration and protected by a large roof. Small entrance at top increases security.

Fig. 31 Traditional Kamba grain store, Kenya

Fig. 32: Similar to Fig. 31, cylindrical basket, raised up on rock footings, with wide, overhanging thatch roof.

Fig. 32 Traditional grain store, Kenya

Fig. 33: This store can hold 1,000 kg. of maize on the cob, which is why it is not raised too high off the ground. The door is not protected from birds or rats.

Fig. 33 Traditional covered basket store, Kenya

Fig. 34: This cylindrical, plastered mudblock silo rests on concrete pillars with sheet plastic between the pillars and the silo to reduce moisture migration. The ferro-cement lid is "cemented" into place with termite mound material.

Fig. 34 Improved Ghana grain silo

Fig. 35: An improvement over Figs. 31, 32 and 33: raised one meter, thorn rat guards, sealed top, with tight-fitting, locking, outlet "spout".

Fig. 35 Improved muddied basket with rat guards, Kenya

Fig. 36: A typical maize crib or barn, for storing field-dried cobs. This one could be improved by building no wider than 1-1/2 meters to allow good air flow.

Fig. 36 Traditional Kipsigis grain store, Kenya

Fig. 37: Potatoes should be kept moist, cool and dark. This clamp keeps off rain and sun, but keeps the potatoes in contact with the earth.

Fig. 37 In the field potato clamp

Fig. 38: Yams store well in humid climates by being tied in the shade of trees. This method also allows for easy inspection.

Fig. 38 Yams tied to poles and trees for drying and storage

Fig. 39: The clamp in Fig. 37 could be improved by adding a horizontal air tube to allow carbon dioxide to escape to minimize rotting.

Fig. 39 Improved potato clamp with air circulation tube

Fig. 40: A large-scale clamp can be built more permanently using posts to support the insulated thatch roof the large surface area of earth moderates the temperature and humidity inside this store house.

Fig. 40 Semi-subterranean potato storage house

Fig. 41: Improving the maize crib in Fig. 36 by raising it higher and building it narrower. It could still use rat-guards and a slightly improved roof.

Fig. 41 Improved maize crib built from local materials

Fig. 42: In the book Appropriate Technology for Grain Storage, it shows how one community solved their own storage problems by fitting their large-scale dungus with rat guards and raising them off the ground.

Fig. 42 Dungu, improved with rat guards, Tanzania

Fig. 43: They say the shape of this basket doesn't allow rats to run up its sides but they could still run up the legs. Could be improved in at least 4 ways.

Fig. 43 Traditional grain storage basket, Ivory Coast

Fig. 44: When stacking bags of grain in a warehouse, keep them off the ground with bush poles or perfectly sound sheets of plastic, to reduce moisture migration from the ground (even if it's a concrete floor).

Fig. 44 Improved grain sack storage inside warehouse

Fig. 45: The cooking fire provides smoke and heat, but the grain is still susceptible to birds and house rats.

Fig. 45 Traditional attic storage, Tanzania

Fig. 46: A fire could be lighted under this dungu any time the grain became moist or moldysmelling. One type of a rainy season dryer. Needs rat guards.

Fig. 46 Traditional Dungu, Tanzania

Fig. 47: This cut-away view shows maize being stored and dried in the attic of this cookhouse. The thatch roof allows the smoke to filter up through the maize, then through the roof (which also preserves the thatch).

Fig. 47 Traditional grain drying and storage

Fig. 48: Raising a traditional woven basket off the ground at least one meter, providing rat guards and a good roof substantially improved this store.

Fig. 48 Traditional store improved with rat guards

Fig. 49: These large rice stores (4-6 tons of rice per store) in Laos are fairly well protected. Rats can easily climb ladders, however, so they should be stored away from the storage areas when not in use.

Fig. 49 Traditional raised rice stores, Laos

Fig. 50: Traditionally, these baskets are placed on the ground, but have been improved in several ways as shown here.

Fig. 50 Traditional nkhokwe improved with rat guards and muddying, Malawi

Fig. 51: This crib is narrow enough, but the roof overhang is not large enough and the rat guard "sleeves" attached to the legs have been shown to be ineffective: rats can jump over them. The conical guards are improved versions.

Fig. 51 Improved maize crib built from local materials, Nigeria

Fig. 52: These storehouses are on a large concrete pad. An intact piece of plastic is laid down, bags of rice are stacked on the plastic and eventually covered with woven mats. The area is kept clean to keep from attracting rats. Fumigants and insecticides can be applied easily.

Fig. 52 Hygienic rice store, China

Fig. 53: A well-built crib. The cost could be reduced by using local materials.

Fig. 53 Improved crib built from imported materials, Swaziland

Fig. 54: This airtight, wattle and daub grain store has cement plaster inside and out to reduce moisture migration. The lid is sealed with termite mud. The spout is a tin can with a tight-fitting, resealable top.

Fig. 54 Air-tight wattle and daub grain store, Sierra Leone

Fig. 55: This silo is similar to Fig. 34. Sitting on a stone foundation to reduce moisture and painted white or whitewashed to reflect sunlight reduces the temperature fluctuations and, therefore, condensation inside the store.

Fig. 55 Air-tight brick silo, Tanzania

Fig. 56: Rat guards need to be at least one meter off the ground, or rats can jump over them. The vertical slat sides on this crib allow easy removal of grain.

Fig. 56 Maize crib, improved with rat guards, Nigeria

Fig. 57: This metal silo was heating and cooling daily as it sat out in the sun, so the owners improved it by adding a thatch roof shade, or cover.

Fig. 57 Metal grain tank with thatch roof, Swaziland

Fig. 58: These silos were imported as a development project. It was soon found that farmers could not afford them, that they heated and cooled rapidly, causing condensation and that they rusted through in three or four years.

Fig. 58 Imported steel grain silo, Benin

Fig. 59: Good, wide, roof overhangs, raised high, rat guards and lots of ventilation. A crib this wide could be used to store maize only it it were field-dried or air-dried down to 13% moisture or less.

Fig. 59 Improved maize crib,

HADNOUT 5B: Food Drying Considerations

A. Enclosed Solar Dryers

1. The air flow must be high enough to remove moisture from the food.

2. Air flow is proportional to vent size and dryer height (chimney height is the distance from the top of the inlet vent to the bottom of the outlet vent), but inversely proportional to temperature within the dryer.

3. Tray depths should range from 1cm for small grains and legumes to 15cm for maize still on the cob.

4. A large outlet vent can be partially closed on partly sunny days to increase dryer temperature and opened on sunny days to maximize air flow.

5. Air flow rate should be between 1/3 and 1/2 cubic meters per minute per cubic meter of dryer volume.

6. The temperature must be high enough to remove moisture from the food without cooking the food. Temperature is proportional to collector area and insulation rate, but inversely proportional to vent size and chimney height and also inversely proportional to drying time.

7. Orient and tilt the collector to optimize solar collection on either a daily or annual basis.

8. A 3/4 square meter collector will remove 1 kilogram of water in a day. This will dry 1.5kg of fresh fruit or 5.25kg of grain per day.

9. A back-up heating system may need to be designed into the dryer to optimize drying and reduce spoilage of partially dried foods.

B. All Dryers

1. Humidity of the air must be low enough to remove moisture from the food. But even 80% humidity air will dry rice down to 18% moisture.

2. The dryer should keep out rain, dirt, insects, animals and sometimes people.

3. The dryer should be large enough to accommodate the crops to be dried at a given time of year, but small enough to be affordable.

HANDOUT 5C: Food Storage Considerations

1. Most dried foods should be stored in small, airtight containers in cool, dark and dry places. The containers should keep out moisture, insects, rodents and dirt. Small containers, like plastic bags, can be placed inside each other, larger containers such as jars or crocks, which can then be sealed for long-term storage. Gourds, such as calabashes, can be filled with dried foods, covered with cloth, tied tight with string and then dipped in hot wax to seal.

Containers should be checked often. Moist, spoiled, or insect-infested small containers should be removed from the large container to reduce further contamination.

2. Some special storage considerations:

A. Maize can be stored in cribs or other outdoor containers. It can be stored on the cob, once properly dried and pasteurized. Protect from rodents with screening. Allow cobs to be well-ventilated.

Maize husks can be tied or woven together and draped over wires. Protect the maize from rodents by placing rodent guards at the ends of the wires.

Maize can also be shelled (de-cobbed) and placed into bags and then into crocks, jars or tins.

B. Sorghum, wheat and other grains should be pasteurized before storage. Store as you would maize. Pasteurization destroys viability of seed, however.

C. Grain legumes can be stored with smaller grains which take up the inter-granular spaces and thus restrict movements of bugs and beetles.

Grain legumes treated with lemon, groundnut, castor, coconut and mustard oils have been kept from insect attack for up to 6 months.

Malathion treatment is effective on stored grains and grain legumes to kill insect eggs and larvae laid in the field.

D. Rice panicles can be stored much like maize (in a crib, as above).

Rice stored in the husk (as paddy) is more insect resistant than milled grain.

Rice stored at 30°C and 85% moisture will absorb moisture during the day and that moisture will condense at night, wetting the grain. Ventilated grain will not allow moisture to condense. Aeration also reduces the temperature due to evaporation.

E. Roots and tubers can be "cured" by being kept at high (35-40°C) temperature and relative humidity (85%) for a few days prior to storage. Curing promotes suberization and creates a callus over damaged areas.

Handouts 6A to 8B

HANDOUT 6A: Smoke Test Data Collection Sheet

Smoke test data collection sheet

A. Color of chimney can be black, white, galvanized, etc.

B. Tilt of chimney is measured in degrees from the horizontal. Horizontal = 0° Vertical = 90°.

C. Orientation is determined with a direction compass. (N. E, S. W)

D. Radius equals one-half the diameter.

E. Area of Vent, is pi (p) times the square of the radius of the chimney or A= p r² where:

A = area, given in square centimeters, (cm²)
p = pi = 3.14159, or approximately 3
r = radius of chimney, (column D).

F. Height is vertical height, measured in meters, between inlet and outlet vents.

G. Volume, given in cubic meters = 10,000 x A x h (or, V = kAh) where:

V = the volume, given in cubic meters (m³)
k = conversion factor = 1 = 10,000 cubic centimeters per cubic meter (10,000cm³/m³)
A = area of vent, given in square centimeters (cm²), Column E
h = height of the chimney, given in meters (m), (column F)

H. Time is amount of time (seconds) elapsed between smoke being introduced into the inlet vent and smoke first appearing at the outlet vent.

I. Air Flow is given in cubic meters per minute (m³/min) and equals column G - (column H x 60 seconds per minute).

J. Inlet Air Temperature is measured at the inlet vent of the chimney, is given in °C, and usually equals the ambient air temperature.

K. Outlet Air Temperature is measured at the outlet vent and given in °C.

HANDOUT 7A: Effective Group survey

Group leaders, group facilitators and group members may sometimes want to assess the group's capability for working productively. This survey can be used by one or many, with the results posted and discussed toward the end of a meeting.

Directions: Circle the letter opposite each item on the survey below the best describes the group's interactions.

The scale used is:

A - All group members
B - Most group members (two-thirds or more)
C - About half the group members
D - A few group members (one third or less)
E - None of this group

During this (or the most recent) session, how many group members, including yourself:

1. Gave due consideration to all seriously intended contributions of other group members?	A B C D E
2. Checked (by paraphrasing, etc.) to make sure they knew what was really meant before agreeing or disagreeing?	A B C D E
3. Spoke only for themselves and let others speak for themselves?	A B C D E
4. Viewed all contributions as belonging to the group, to be used or not as the group decided?	A B C D E
5. Had the opportunity to participate in the group if they desired to do so?	A B C D E
6. Tried to find the reason if the group was having trouble getting work done?	A B C D E
7. Helped the group make decisions openly rather than by default?	A B C D E
8. Helped bring conflict into the open so the group could deal with it?	A B C D E
9. Looked upon behavior which hindered group process as a group problem, rather than as a "problem member"?	A B C D E

Reprinted from systematic & Objective Analysis of Instruction Training Manual. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1970.

HANDOUT 7B: The Decision-Making Process

The following types of decision making are familiar to all of us:

1. Plops

A decision suggested by an individual to which there is no response (e.g., "I suggest we shelve this question.")

2. Self-Authorization
A decision made by an individual who assumes authority (e.g., "I think we should all write our ideas on the blackboard. " - and proceeds to be the first to do so).

3. The Handclasp
A decision made by two or more members of the group who join forces or decide the issue in advance (e.g., "That was a helpful comment, John. Yes, that's the course we're going to take.")

4. Baiting
A decision made by pressure not to disagree (e.g., "No one objects, do they?"), or a decision made by pressure to agree (e.g., "We all agree, don't we?).

5. Majority Rule
A decision made by some form of voting.

6. Unanimity
A decision made by overt and unanimous consent, often without discussion.

7. Polling
A decision made by a form of voting which inquires, "Let's see where everyone stands.. -and then proceeds to tabulate the already expressed majority decision.

8. Consensus
A decision made after allowing all aspects of the issue, both positive and negative, to be put forth to the degree that everyone openly agrees it is probably the best decision. This is not necessarily unanimity, but it constitutes a basic agreement by all group members.

HANDOUT 7C: Feedback and the Helping Relationship

Some criteria for useful feedback:

1. It is descriptive rather than evaluative. By describing one's own reaction, it leaves the individual free to use it or not to use it as he/she sees fit. By avoiding evaluative language, it reduces the need for the individual to react defensively.

2. It is specific rather than general. To be told that one is "dominating" will probably not be as useful as to be told the "just now when we were discussing the issue you didn't listen to what others said and I felt forced to accept your arguments or face an attack from you."

3. It takes into account the needs of both the receiver and the giver of feedback. Feedback can be destructive when it serves only our own needs and fails to consider the needs of the person on the receiving end.

4. It is directed toward behavior which the receiver can do something about. Frustration is only increased when a person is reminded of some shortcoming over which he has no control.

5. It is solicited, rather than imposed. Feedback is most useful when the receiver him/herself has formulated the kind of question which those observing him/her can answer.

6. It is well-timed. In general, feedback is most useful at the earliest opportunity after the given behavior (depending, of course, on the person's readiness to hear it, support available from others, etc.).

7. It is checked to insure clear communication. One way of doing this is to have the receiver try to rephrase the feedback he/she has received to see if it corresponds to what the sender had in mind.

8. When feedback is given in a group, both giver and receiver have opportunity to check with others in the group the accuracy of the feedback. Is this one person's impression or an impression shared by others?

Feedback, then, is a way of giving help; it is a corrective mechanism for the individual who want to learn how well his/her behavior matches the intention and it is a means for establishing one's identify - for answering "who am I?"

* Taken from the Reading Book: Laboratories in Human Relations Training, Washington, D.C.: NTL Institute for Applied Behavior Science, associated with the National Education, 1969.

HANDOUT 8A: NON-FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION
(Adapted from Perspectives on NOD formal Adult Learning by Lyra Srinivasan)

The demands of a developing world have in the past thirty years given us a new appreciation of nonformal ways of providing education for adults who either have not had access to formal schooling or whose formal education has proved Inadequate or irrelevant. In some areas of the world, where a new push toward development demanded the participation of millions of uneducated adults, the existing formal institutions were incapable of undertaking a task of such magnitude. In other areas, large sections of the population found that the to m al systems had not given them the skills they needed to compete successfully in technological societies.

The ideas of two educators, Ivan Illich and Paulo Freire, have been among the most influential in this new field of non formal education

THE CALL FOR SOCIAL REFORM: ILLICH AND FREIRE

Ivan Illich and Paulo Freire attack traditional styles of education from different angles, but they both start from a concern for the dignity and worth of the individual and for the liberation of men and women from an oppressive or exploitative environment.

Illich calls for a cultural revolution, believing strongly that the mere revision of the formal school system will not result in the regeneration of society he seeks. In fact, at the root-of the problem are the exaggerated importance attached to credits and certification, the educational monopoly claimed by schools, the tendency to "contuse teaching with learning, grade advancement with education, a diploma with competence, and fluency with the ability to say something new". The value that Illich attaches to creativity as an attribute of a freely growing, fully expressive society, makes him particularly critical of the traditional role of the teacher. In this, he is clove to Freire (although Freire launches his attack on traditional schooling from a more political standpoint, speaking in terms of the "oppressor" and the "oppressed").

Both reformers contend that the teacher-dominated system of education robe the learner of his self respect. The way in which the teacher deals with his pupil cancels the safeguards of individual freedom, claims Illich. "When the school-teacher fuses in his person the functions of Judge, ideologue, and doctor, the fundamental style of society is perverted by the very process which should prepare - for life. A teacher who combines these three powers contributes to the warping of the child much more than the laws which establish his legal or economic minority, or restrict trio right to free assembly or abode", bat gives the schoolteacher such power over 0a learners? A false assumption, Illich believes: the assumption that there is a secret to everything in life, that the quality of life depends on knowing that secret, that secrete should be revealed only In orderly succession, and that only teachers can properly reveal these secretes.

At least half of the world's people never set foot in school and perhaps have no direct contact with teachers. Yet, Illich points out, adult illiterates . . learn quite effectively the demeaning message that our educational systems teach: that in order to amount to something, people must depend on schools to unlock all doors. Furthermore, the schools reinforce the adult illiterates' sense of inferiority by demanding that they provide for schools through taxes, while the bureaucracies of the educational systems raise their expectations for what those schools can provide and their children are taught to confirm the demagogues' claims

Accordingly Illich advocates a; a solution the "inverse of school," where the learner will establish new relationship with his environment and choose what and from whom he wants to learn. This, he believes, would undo the monopoly that teachers generally enjoy as the sole legitimate dispensers of "right" education.

Traveling a different route, Freire comes to a similar conclusion: learners need to be liberated from the oppression of the traditional teacher. But Freire's solution is to evolve a style of teaching which, in itself, is intrinsically liberating.

Through education, adult illiterates rust active at a new awareness of their own self-hood and start to look critically at their own social situation in order to take steps to change the society that has previously denied them an opportunity to participate. Thus, for Freire, education in its true sense is, and should be, a revolutionary force.

But if it is to serve the purposes of social revolution, education must first be capable of helping man become more aware of, and responsible for, himself and his world through a process of reflection followed by action and further reflection. This, he calls praxis.

Unlike Illich Freire does not blame social atrophy primarily on the school system. Freire traces the root causes of apathy and ignorance to class oppression and to what he sees a-, the mistaken paternalism of society as a whole. The class structure of present day society , he claims, does not encourage or equip the poor to know and respond to the concrete realities of their world. Rather, the oppressed are kept locked into a situation where the development of their own critical awareness and response is practically impossible. This he calls the "culture of silence' of the dispossessed.

Thus the school, though not entirely to blame, is viewed by Freire as a mayor instrument in maintaining that culture of silence, because it fails to encourage critical analysis of reality, egalitarian dialogue, and the mutual humanization of teachers and learners. Freire main contribution to the foeld lies in the concept of conscientization, which teas been translated as conscientization - a word coined to describe the arousing of man's positive self concept in relation to his environment and society through a 'liberating education" which treats learners as subjects (active agents) and not as objects (passive recipients). A liberating education must accordingly shed the elements that perpetuate the dichotomy of one set of' people in positions of prestige and authority, the oppressors, and the other in positions of' dependence and inferiority, the oppressed.

To help the peasant break away from traditional fatalism and feelings of power-lessness. Freire emphasizes reflective thinking as the crux of the educational program. He then introduces the concept of praxis (reflection/action/reflection) as man's real function: men and women are not objects to be manipulated but are : active, creative subjects with the capacity to examine critically, interact with, and transform their worlds.

Since teaching style seems to be a key factor in this process, Freire offers detailed analysis of' the shortcomings of the prescriptive style of teaching. This is perhaps his most direct and practical contribution to non-formal education ideology.

ID prescriptive or directive teaching, the teacher assumes an authoritarian role as the one best qualified to prescribe what the learner should learn and how be should think and behave. The teacher acts as the guardian of the secret, as Illich describes it. This authoritarian role tends to diminish the learner as a human being. Thus Freire claims that "every prescription represents the imposition of one man's choice upon another, transforming the consciousness of the man prescribed to into one that conforms with the prescriber's consciouness."

Freire is unsparing in his attack on this prescriptive kind of teaching, which he refers to as the "banking system". His criticism has found a good measure of support among nonformal educaters around the world.

In the banking system of education, the main transaction, according to Freire, is the act of transferring information form the teacher's head and depositing it in the students' heads. The students are thus the depositories and the teacher is the depositor. Certain traditional teaching attitudes and practices are logically deduced from this premise.

Freire describes them as a system of domestication which reflects the oppressive nature of society as a whole

1- the teacher teaches and the students are taught;
2- the teacher knows everything sad the students know nothing;
3- the teacher talks and the students listen-meekly;
4- the teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined;
5- the teacher chooses and enforces his choice, and the students comply;
6- the teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher;
7- the teacher chooses the program content, and the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it;

In opposition to this "domesticating" system. Freire suggests a problem-posing education which breaks the vertical patterns characteristic of traditional teacher/ student relations and establishes horizontal dialogue. Thus, in Freire's conscientizaçao:

- no one can teach anyone else;
- no one learns alone;
- people learn together acting in and on their world".

There is no longer an authority-dependency relationship. Instead of domesticating, the learning experience provides adults with opportunities for critical analysis of their environment, for deepening their self-perceptions in relation to it, and for building confidence in their own creativity and capabilities for action. It has been observed that even literacy when approached from Greire's standpoint is transformed from a mere technical skill into a component of a process that implies values, develops mentalities, and leads to social and political consequences.

Teachers and students thus become jointly responsible for a process in which all grow. The philosophical assumption is that men and women as conscious beings are capable of reflection on and critical intervention in reality. Education must therefore increasingly challenge them, more them to authentic and critical reflection, thereby increasing the scope of their perception, and evoking new challenges and commitment to their spontaneous action upon reality. This whole process is described by Freire as one of humanization - the parsuit of full humanity - which he identifies as man's historical vocation.

Although many educators do not agree with Freire's socio-political orientation, his ideas on conscientization and problem-posing education have profoundly affected the concepts underlying a number of nonformal education programs.

What have been most borrowed or adapted are some of Freire's techniques for establishing dialogue and engaging the learner in praxis (reflection/action/reflection).

SOME ASSUMPTIONS IN NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

Today's educators must become more conscious of the unique opportunities which this field offers us-to be inventive, to experiment, to examine, to learn, to perfect new techniques and refine concepts. The field is still wide open, with no prescriptions and no right-for-all-times answers. In planning new strategies best suited to the needs of particular learners in particular settings, we are as free to draw aspiration from science as from the arts, from business management and social services, from modern practical invention as well as from ancient philosophies. Openness to experimentation characterizes nonformal education at this stage of its development and provides one of its special challenges.

The eight assumptions listed below are not all equally relevant to all innovative nonformal education projects, nor equally shared by all practitioners in the field. But we believe they are consistent with the basic philosophy that underlies non formal education practices.

1. Adults in rural areas are more likely to accept new ideas when they can understand them in the context of their priorities and inter-related with the other important segments of their lives.

2. Effective learning takes place most easily when there is strong motivation to learn. The motive power needs to come from inner convictions and not from mere persuasion or external incentive.

3. The individual's capacity to contribute to development requires that he/she be able to clarity value positions, discern cause-effect relationships, make considered Judgment and take responsibility for action. Learning experiences can be structured specifically to promote these attitudes, abilities and behavior.

4. The learning experience should further enable the learner to change the way he uses himself (e.g. from passive to active, timid to confident, routine to creative). This is a fundamental growth objective.

5. Conscientization is not something that can be "done" to people - it must spring from within. However, self-concepts can be strengthened and expanded through sensitive preparation of the learning experience and environment.

6. In rural development the people are often their own mayor resource. At every stage of the educational process, local leaders and learning group peers-who can play an important role in reinforcing and legitimizing change- should be trained and involved in a variety of leadership roles in support of' the program. Further, a facilitator drawn from within the community or from a comparable setting will be at least as successful as an outsider, ii not more so. The facilitator can help create the climate of' trust which is the first step in fostering human development. The selection, training, and use of facilitators is therefore of vital importance.

7. Learning materials can be developed locally with the full creative involvement of learners and can greatly increase the relevance and impact of' training programs.

8. Training as well as field operations must be carefully documented, analyzed and evaluated. The experience must then be ploughed back into program planning and further training so that future programs can benefit from our experience today.

HANDOUT 8B: EXTENSION, TRAINING AND DIALOGUE: A NEW APPROACH FOR TANZANIA

Dr. James De Vries Journal of Adult Education University of Dar es Salaam

Extension, Education and Development

Training and extension work with farmers is both an educational effort and a means of development and a part of that development. Before we can begin to criticize traditional training and extension techniques and advocating new ones, it is important to be clear what we mean by development and how training and extension work relate to this goal. Until recently, development was usually defined in economic terms such as changes in the Gross National Product, per capita and economic living standards. Training, and especially agricultural extension, were viewed as an economic development tool; as an investment in human capital on which a return was expected. This implied a directly functional approach to teaching and learning which was focused on "practical" skills and immediate pay-offs.

This view has changed over the past ten years due to concerns about income distribution, dependency on government and other social and political concerns. Now almost every statement about training and development mentions the importance of participation, mobilization, equality and self-determination. Since independence, the party and the Tanzanian government have defined development as liberation. Development is:

A permanent revolution for the total liberation of the people of Tanzania and Africa from all forms and manifestations of domination, exploitation, oppression, humiliation, weakness, racism, poverty, ignorance, disease and misery (Daily News, 1975)

For development has a purpose: that purpose is the liberation of man. It is true that in the Third World we talk a great deal about economic development - but the goods are needed to serve man; services are required to make the lives of men more easeful as well as more fruitful. Political, social and economic organization is needed to enlarge the freedom and dignity of men; always we come back to man - to liberated man - as the purpose of the development activity. (Nyerere. 1976)

Development is thus more than a change in material welfare, farming practices or yield per hectare or return per man-day of labor. Development involves changing people, changing their consciousness or awareness and helping them to become "beings for themselves" - making their own political, cultural and economic decisions. "The expansion of (man's) own consciousness, and therefore power over himself, his environment and his society, must therefore ultimately be what we mean by development. (Nyerere. 1976)

Education is thus both an end and a means of development. Development which depends on the actions of men requires a change in their consciousness, so that they are the determinant of their own actions. Farmers follow a given practice not because of traditionalism, but because they see it as the best method in the face of their own particular situation. To change these practices either demands force or a change in awareness which convinces them that a different form of action better meets their needs.

Raising the farmers' awareness is the role of both training and extension work. "Adult education has to be directed at helping men and women to develop themselves - to think clearly - to examine possible alternative courses of action; to make a choice between those alternatives in keeping with their own purposes; and to equip them with the ability to translate their decisions into reality.. (Nyerere, 1976) The "developed" farmer is not the one who is "regressive" or follows the recommended practices (although he or she may do this); rather the developed farmer is -he one who is critically aware of his or her situation and acts on it in accordance with this awareness.

The Traditional Approach

Education and extension in Tanzania and other developing countries have received a great deal of criticism. While in part this is unfair because of unrealistic expectations and a failure to see training and extension in the context of other factors influencing development work, much of the criticism is deserved. Part of the blame can be put on the traditional training and extension approaches used in the villages and elsewhere. This approach has variously been called the banking, empty cup, directive or top-down approach. Its essence is that the trainer or extension worker is the expert who knows (full cup) and tries to give (deposit as in the bank) this knowledge to the farmer or villager (empty cup) whose role is to passively receive and acknowledge what was received from the expert.

The assumption underlying this relationship is that the trainer or agent knows what is good for the farmer or village. Thus, the relationship is vertical and assumes a one-way flow of information from the top down. The farmer or villager is seen as ignorant, lacking knowledge, traditional and resistant to change. This means he or she is helpless and must be helped to develop, almost in spite of themselves. The farmer or villager is the passive learner, while the trainer or extension agent is the active educator.

In practice what this boils down to is that the trainer or agent, whether at a meeting, demonstration program or training session, is always in the position of telling villagers what to do. He tries to provide them with solutions to their problems much in the same manner a doctor provides prescriptions to medical problems. In a village one may find a list of the "ten commandments" of good farming posted. In a meeting one will hear the Katibu Kata exhort farmers to weed properly and the Bwan Shamba telling them that eight sprayings of insecticide are necessary to produce good cotton. Farmers rarely raise objections, because they know that such objections are not welcome and often accept the role of the ignorant, passive listener because they are continually told they are. They therefore exist in an oppressive environment over which they exercise little control. If they do object, they are quickly silenced by references to "wataalamu" research and "modern methods" (meaning they are ignorant and traditionalistic) or they need to work (meaning they are lazy). Rather than objecting openly and thus offering to educate the trainers or extension workers and be educated in return, most farmers remain silent. They go home and fail to put into practice what was suggested, even when they may have agreed to do so in the meeting.

The failure of farmers to follow the expert's advice is discouraging to the expert and reinforces the feeling that farmers irrationally resist change. As a result, educators and extension workers tend to work with those few who seem more open to their suggestions -the "progressive" farmers - and to advocate the use of pressure to force farmers to use recommended practices for their own good. As one RADO told me, "A farmer who refuses to follow recommended practices is like a sick man: you have to force him to eat and he will thank you for it when he becomes better."

Failure of the Top Down Approach

Unfortunately the farmer often does not become "better" in the sense that he or she obtains a significant benefit from the forced practice. This reveals one of the fallacies underlying the traditional approach: the assumption that all recommended practices are good and that the experts are always right. Experience and research in Tanzania have shown that many practices either recommended to the farmers or forced on them did not benefit the farmers and their rejection of them was quite rational.

Some recent examples are:

1. The use of fertilizer on maize in the lower altitude areas of Morogoro, Tanga and Iringa Region.
2. Growing maize and many other crops in monoculture.
3. Early planting and close spacing of cotton.
4. Production of cotton in many areas of the "Eastern Zone".

Thus, while many recommendations are good experience has shown that when evaluated from the farmer's perspective, many do not solve the farmer's most pressing needs and are, therefore, unacceptable.

This brings up the second fallacy of the top-down approach: the assumption that farmers and villagers are ignorant. It is true that many of them have little formal education and are illiterate. It is not true that they have learned nothing and know nothing. (It is unfortunate that in Swahili, the same word, ujinga, can be used for both illiterate and ignorant, because the two cannot be equated.) Farmers, through experience and the informal sharing of ideas, have developed a wealth of knowledge about agricultural production and survival in an often harsh environment. They also have a better understanding of their problems, needs, priorities, resources, values, attitudes, local culture, etc. Educators and extension agents tend to be outsiders and members of a different socio-economic class.

Thus, both the extension agent or trainer and the farmer or villager have some knowledge necessary to bring about changes in practices. The scientific knowledge of the researcher needs to be complimented by the more natural knowledge of the farmer to bring about a critical understanding of the problem and the basis for action.

The third major fallacy of the top-down approach is the assumption that knowledge can be given or extended by the trainer and extension agent. Knowledge cannot be poured into the adult learner like tea into a cup. Informed action develops in learners as a result of interaction with information, the situation and fellow human beings. Learning is not an activity of the trainer, but of the learner, and involves a change from one way of understanding or doing something to another. Adults in particular have developed attitudes and ways of doing things. Learning often involves the rejection of existing ideas and acceptance of new ones.

This leads to the importance of understanding the farmer's present knowledge and understanding and these must form the foundation of any new learning. Only an active interaction with ideas and other people can result in the learner really understanding new ideas and making them his or her own, instead of them merely being someone else's ideas.

Finally, another major criticism of the top-down approach, particularly important in the Tanzanian context, is that it builds a dependency relationship between experts (often seen as representing government) and farmers and villagers. It means presenting the farmers with solutions to their problems, defined in the first place by the experts, instead of analyzing their problems with them, in order to fully understand them, and coming to a solution cooperatively. The traditional approach makes the farmer feel dependent on the continued advice of the trainer or extension agent, as it fails to teach him how to analyze and solve problems on his own. While the government and the party have accepted liberation as the major goal of development, the top-down approach to adult education and extension work encourages dependency and passivity.

Instead of seeing men and women as the end of development, it treats them as a means, tools to be manipulated as efficiently as possible in order to achieve the goals of those in power. In the face of the above, it seems fair to conclude that the present, prevailing approaches to adult education and extension work are not only ineffective but actually are detrimental to the development of Tanzanian farmers and villagers.

The Dialogue Approach

The dialogue approach, illustrated in Table 1, is the opposite of the traditional, top-down approach. Its essence is the horizontal sharing of ideas between trainers/learners, learners/ trainers in a process of reflecting and acting on the world in order to understand it and control it better. It is based on faith in people, in his or her ability in cooperation with others, to be able to understand self and situation, and to act on it and change it.

The dialogue approach assumes that both the trainer or extension agent and the student or farmer know something about the subject of interest, especially if the goal is for the learner to apply what is to be learned. Although one may have more general or abstract knowledge and the other may have more informal and specific knowledge, this difference does not make one or the other superior in the situation. It is the shared knowledge both have in the situation which is superior. Within the constraints of each party's environment, each can learn and change as a result of interacting with each other.

While all farmers have some knowledge, they are not always aware of this knowledge. In fact, because they are constantly told that they are backward, lazy, ignorant and thereby made to accept that they are "hopeless," they often feel that they know nothing. When farmers can be drawn out in dialogue as a group, they are often surprised at how much they already know, collectively, about a wide range of production or development problems. It is important, in the beginning, to draw out what the farmers or villagers already know to be able to build on it. As Mwalimu Nyerere points out, by drawing out what the farmers know (which can only be done through dialogue) and showing the relevance of what is known to what is being learned, the trainer achieves three things:

He has built up the self-confidence of the man who wants to learn, by showing him that he is capable of contributing. He has demonstrated the relevance of experience and observation as a method of learning to be combined with thought and analysis. He has shown what I call the "maturity" of learning - that is, by sharing our knowledge, we extend the totality of our understanding and our control over our own lives.

The trainer's role in dialogue is not to present knowledge to the learner but to lead the learner to an examination of problems -to ask the learner to critically reflect and act on problems (problem-posing). Knowledge or learning grow out of this reflection-action cycle. The farmer will never learn the benefit of a practice and the problems associated with it until he has actually tried it and then thought about his experience critically.

Traditional Approach	Dialogue Approach
1. Educators teach and farmers are taught.	1. Educators and farmers are both involved in learning.
2. Experts know everything and the farmers know nothing.	2. Both have knowledge to contribute to joint learning.
3. Educators possess the authority of knowledge and have a monopoly on it - which they perpetuate.	3. Knowledge is the property of everyone. No one can or should monopolize it.
4. Educators/experts think and farmers are	4. Farmers are encouraged to think on their own, thought about.
5. Educators/experts are active and farmers are passive during learning.	5. Both educators and farmers are active during learning

Table 1

Neither will the trainer or extension agent know the value of his ideas until he has shared them with the learner and tested them out against the farmer's perceptions and experience. Dialogue thus requires both action and reflection, experience and thought. Without action, teaching is merely verbalism and amounts to exhorting the farmers to do this or that without showing them how to do it and thus has limited impact on their farming practices. Without reflection, extension work can become mindless activism in which farmers are forced to follow certain practices without understanding them and without the farmers themselves being developed.

Is Dialogue Feasible ?

Let us examine two objections to the use of the dialogue approach often made by extension agents, educators and government officials.

1. The first is that it is impossible to dialogue with farmers or villagers because they know little or nothing about modern agriculture or how to make a village cooperative work.

2. The second objection is that it is too slow and expensive, that our problems need urgent solutions and therefore cannot wait for a long process of dialogue to take place.

Handouts 10A to 14C

HANDOUT 10A: Materials and Tools List

Materials		Item, size	Unit Cost
Mudblocks
Cement, 50kg bag
Sand
Gravel
Clay
Chicken wire
Plastic Sheet
Window screen
Mosquito Netting
Wire, thin
Twine, 2-3mm
Bush Rope
Nails:	3cm
	5cm
	8cm
Paint, black
Paint, white
Corrugated metal roofing
Corrugated Fiberglass roofing
Lumber:	1" x 6"
	2" x 2"
Large baskets
Woven mats
Bush poles
Bamboo poles
Reeds
Calabashes
Large Tins
Salt
1% Malathion Dust
Tools
Shovel
Saw
Hammer
Pliers
Tin Snips
Trowel
Paint Brush
Bucket
Wood chisel
Tape measure
File
Thermometers
Paring Knives
Bubble Level

HANDOUT 12A: Guidelines for Process Observer

This handout should be used to process Session 12, Facilitation Skills. It is, however, general enough so that it can be used (along with the list of facilitation skills developed in Session 12) to evaluate any meeting, group activity, session or program.

Instructions: Answer the following questions and give two or three specific examples to back up your responses.

I. The Activity

A. Did the group meet the objectives of the activity?
B. What is your opinion of the information generated?
C. What points (if any) are missing from the - information?

II. The Process

A. What went well?
B. What could have gone better?
C. Was the activity clear?
D. What was the decision-making process of the group?
E. Did everyone agree on the decisions made?
F. Was there active participation by all?
G. Was there a relationship between the amount of participation and factors such as sex, age, nationality or job position?
H. Did the group utilize all of the resources available to it?
I. How did the activity measure up to the list of facilitation skills?

III. The Roles

A. The Facilitator

1. Did the facilitator demonstrate effective facilitation skills (according to the list developed by the group)?
2. What was the style of the facilitator?

B. Did the recorder fulfill the role?
C. Did the timekeeper fulfill the role?

HANDOUT 13A: Tests for Dryness

Often, the cause of spoilage in stored, dried foods (grains, legumes, fruits and vegetables) is improper or insufficient drying prior to storage. The following tips will help you to determine dryness and prepare foods for storage.

People often have their own tests for dryness which have probably been historically accurate for local foods and local storage techniques. If there are no local tests, the following can be used:

Grains (such as maize, rice, etc.): Fresh food moisture content: 25-35%. Dried food moisture content: 12-15%. Food, when dry, will appear brittle, glassy, semi-transparent. Will crack when hit with a hard object. When shaken in a jar with dry salt, will not cause the salt to clump.

Legumes (such as beans, peas, etc.): Fresh food moisture content: 30-40%. Dried food moisture content: 18%. When dry, is hard, brittle, cracks clean when broken, rattles when stirred or shaken. Slightly smaller than fresh.

Vegetables (such as yams, cabbage, etc.): Fresh food moisture content: 70-85%. Dried food moisture content: 18%. Dry food is tough to brittle while retaining natural color. Root vegetables are leathery when dry.

Fruits (such as bananas, papaya, etc.): Fresh fruit moisture content: 70-85%. Dry fruit moisture content: 10-14%. Dried fruit is leathery, pliable, tough, slightly darkened. Will fall apart after squeezing together.

HANDOUT 13B: Percent Moistures for Grains and Legumes

1. This handout lists percent moisture (P.M.) levels for beans, groundnuts, rice, maize, sorghum, barley, wheat and rye.

2. If the percent moisture (P.M.) is given as a range, it is listed here at the lower end of the range.

3. The following percent moistures (P.M.S) are listed: a. maximum allowable P.M. for harvest b. usual P.M. at harvest c. P.M. for one year safe storage d. equilibrium moisture content (E.M.C.) for dry season conditions (60% Relative Humidity - R.H.) e. E.M.C. for wet season conditions (80% R. H.) f. growing conditions for molds and bacteria

Percent Moisture		Condition
40%	38	maximum harvest of wheat
	35-36	maximum harvest of maize, sorghum
	35	maximum harvest of groundnuts at lifting without curing
	32	maximum harvest of oats
30%	30-40	maximum harvest of beans
	30	maximum harvest of barley, rice
	25	maximum harvest of rye
	23-26	good growing conditions for many bacteria, yeasts and fungi
20%	20-23	good growing conditions for Aspergillus, penicillum and yeast
	18-20	optimal harvest of barley, wheat
	17-18	EMC of beans and rice at 25°C and 80% R.H.
	16-25	usual harvest of rice
	16	EMC of shelled maize at 30°C and 80% R.H.
	15	one year safe storage of oats
	15	EMC of sorghum at 30°C and 80% R.H.
	14-30	usual harvest of maize
	13	point below which microorganisms cannot grow in grain
	13	one year safe storage of barley, maize, rye, wheat
	12-13	E.M.C. of beans and rice at 25°C and 60% R.H.
	12-14	one year safe storage of rice, sorghum
	12	E.M.C. of shelled maize and sorghum at 30°C and 60% R.H.
10%	10-18	usual harvest of barley, oats, sorghum, rye
	10	one year safe storage of groundnuts in pods
	9	E.M.C. of shelled groundnuts at 21°C and 80% R.H.
	9	grain too dry for insect growth
	9-17	usual harvest of wheat
	7	E.M.C. of shelled groundnuts at 21°C and 60% R.H.
	6-8	grain overdried for germination

HANDOUT 13C: Summary of Temperature Factors

Temperature graph

Blanch or steam at 100°C for 20 minutes to sterilize.

Pasteurize at 80°C for 10-15 minutes

75°C maximum drying temperature for livestock feed

60°C maximum drying temperature for human food (except rice and beans) maximum temperature for milling into flour

Pasteurize at 57°C for one hour

45-60°C is a good range for drying foods quickly without severe loss of nutrients or color while protecting from microorganisms and enzyme action

45°C maximum temperature for brewery grain, seed grain and rice for food

35°C maximum temperature for beans for human food

Food can spoil on the drying racks below 40°C in a humid climate

Fish will cook in the 20-30°C range in direct sunlight

Dried meats and fish should be stored below 5°C to avoid rancidity

HANDOUT 13D: Conditioning and pasteurizing

Conditioning

Each batch of food should reach a point of uniform dryness before being sorted. Conditioning equalizes the moisture content between under- and over-dried pieces within a batch.

To condition: Allow the food to cool. Place in a large (20-150 liter) open-top container. Do not use an aluminum container! Line the container with a layer of plastic (if available) and then a layer of cloth. Stir and inspect the food once or twice a day for one to two weeks. Remove overly moist pieces to avoid spoilage. Re-dry the entire batch if condensation appears on the inside of the container. Add newly dried food of the same type to the conditioning container for ONLY the first half of the conditioning process. Keep insects and animals out of the conditioning food. Keep container indoors in a well-ventilated area.

Pasteurizing

Most grains and some legumes will be harvested with insect eggs in or on the food itself. These eggs will not be destroyed during the drying process and will hatch after the food is put into storage. Therefore, it is necessary to pasteurize grains and some legumes and vegetables to kill insect eggs. Pasteurize by bringing the dried food to 80°C for 10-15 minutes, or 57°C for one hour. These temperatures will also destroy spoilage agents such as fungi and bacteria. A heat source other than the sun may be needed for these high temperatures.

Note: Pasteurizing will severely reduce the viability of grain and legume seeds (see Handout 13C for maximum temperatures of grains and legumes).

HANDOUT 14A: Sample Cost - Benefit Analysis for a Solar Dryer

Steps for Determining Present Value of a Project

A. List all costs and benefits (labor, materials, maintenance).
B. Adjust costs and benefits involving foreign exchange upwards by the foreign exchange multiplier.
C. Add up total benefits (B) and total costs (C).
D. Use equation to calculate PV or Net PV.
E. Compare options and choose project with highest PV (for 1 year) or Net PV (over many years).

Costs:
Equipment: or materials (list total cost of the dryer):	$ 75.00
Labor (multiply number of workers times cost of labor times number of days)	25.00
Annual Maintenance (count all of the materials and labor costs to keep the dryer in working condition)	10.00
Total Costs:	$110.00
Benefits
Worth of drying one years crops	$ 35-00
Worth of status of owning dryer (50% of total cost)	55.00
Worth of using dryer in off-season for other uses	15.00
Worth of drying own, best seed, drying crop on time, not overdrying, loss of theft, etc.	25.00
Total Benefit:	$130.00

Present value =

Present value =

Payback and Return on Investment

This shows that at the current interest rates and values, the device will pay back in about six years (with an annual return-on-investment of about 18%, which is more than three times greater than a savings account at 5%). And after the six years, the benefits will remain even though the costs have been substantially reduced (down to maintenance costs only).

HANDOUT 14B: Lifecycle Unit Cost Analysis of a Solar Dryer

Some farmers may want to know, "How much will it cost to dry my crop using a solar dryer?", or, "What is the unit cost (cost per weight) of the product that can be processed by the dryer?" In order to find an approximate cost-per-unit weight over the lifetime of a solar dryer, you can use the following formula:

Lifetime cost =
per unit weight

where:

TLC = Total Lifetime Cost = initial cost of the solar dryer plus the cost of repair and maintenance over the lifetime of the dryer, considering the inflation rate, plus the initial cost of the back-up heater plus the cost of back-up fuel over the lifetime of the dryer.

L.D. = Loading density of the dryer, given in weight per area of tray, such as kilograms per square meter.

A = Area of trays, given in the same units as L.D., i.e.,: square meters

L = Loads per week, using a conservative estimate of the number of times in a week that the dryer will be loaded with fresh food.

W = Number of weeks per year the dryer will be used, given in the conservative estimate of weeks per year that the dryer can possibly be used, depending on crops, harvest, weather, etc.

Y = Number of years the dryer will be functional before it needs a complete replacing.

Example: Find the unit cost for a solar corn dryer assuming the following conditions.

The dryer cost is $100. The back-up heater cost is $25. The cost of repair and maintenance is 1% per year with inflation at 15%. The cost of back-up fuel is $50 for the life of the dryer (10 years). The loading density is 5 kg/m² and the area of the trays is 10 m². 1.5 loads can be put into the dryer each week and the system is usable 12 weeks out of the year.

The unit cost (given in $/kg) of the dried corn is:

$/kg = $0.02/kg = 2¢ per kilogram

The farmer can now compare this number to the cost per unit weight he or she is charged by someone else to have corn dried. If this cost is lower, then it makes economic sense for the farmer to invest in a solar dryer. If this cost is higher, then the solar dryer needs to be built for less cost in order to become competitive with the "conventional" type of drying.

HANDOUT 14C: Economic Comparison of Two Maize Stores

Figures 1 to 4

Handouts 17A to 18D

HADNOUT 17A: Mid-Program Evaluation

Please rate your general satisfaction of the training program, to date:

1. General Satisfaction	1	2	3	4	5
	Not Satisfied At All				Extremely Satisfied

2. Has the program met your expectations?
3. Is the technical level too high or too low?
4. Is the program providing adequate technical skills and extension training?
5. Could the program be better adapted to suit individual needs? How?
6. What has gone well over the past week?
7. What hasn't gone well over the past week that could be improved in the upcoming week?

HANDOUT 17B: Solar drayer and improved food storage workshop

Solar drayer and improved food storage workshop

HANDOUT 17C: Coat of Arms

Coat of Arms

HANDOUT 18A: A Partial List of Non-Formal Education Activities

As facilitators we should be alert to using a variety of teaching methods and tools, depending upon our audience and the results we want to archeive. Learning activities/ situations can be categorized as follows:

A. To Stimulate Interest

Field Trips		Games
Role Plays:	- spontaneous	Demonstrations
	- planned	Problem Dramas
Films or Slide Shows		Result Demonstrations
Campaigns		Puppet Shows
		Pantomime

B. To Get Discussion Going

Picture Stores:	- Closed	Role Plays
	- Open	Problem Dramas
	- Alternatives	Brain Storming
Critical Incidents		Progressive Stories
People's Theater

C. To Share Information

Films/Slides	Talks
Bulletin Board	Puppet Shows
Displays or Exhibits	Demonstrations:	- Method
		- Result

D. To Build Skills

Method Demonstrations	Individual "Hands On"
Apprenticeships	Short Courses
Child to Child (Neighbor to Neighbor)

1. These categories are not all inclusive. In fact, much overlap exists. For example, a game could be used to stimulate interest, get discussion going, to share information, or build skills.

2. All NFE activities should contemplate and encourage participation by local community members.

HANDOUT 18B: Some Guidelines for Motivating and Teaching Groups

Adapted from "Working with Villagers: Trainers Manual", The American Home Economics Association, International Family

Planning Project, 2010 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036, USA

- Games
- Problem Dramas
- Picture Stories
- Talks "Charlas"

Games

To the Trainer: One of the ways to "change the pace" of a lesson and involve those who are shy is by having the audience play a game that relates to lesson content. This activity will help field workers understand how games can be used in their teaching and how to develop games.

Steps:

1. Explain that a game may help people see ordinary things in a new way. It may also start them talking and open them to new ideas.

A game is good if:

· field worker is well-organized to present the game and has tried it out with a small group first.
· people understand the rules of the game; the field worker should announce the rules clearly before the game is started and check that everyone understands.
· the game introduces a new idea that is important to the lesson's content.
· as many people as possible have a chance to play the game.
· the follow-up questions lead to a lively group discussion.

If the field workers have used games in their teaching, as them to describe the games and their experiences in using them.

Ask trainees to think of games villagers play. List them on the blackboard. Discuss ways these games could be adapted to specific lesson content.

Problem Drama

To the Trainer: A problem-drama is another effective teaching technique which causes people to think and to participate in group discussion.

Discuss what makes a good problem-drama. Be certain the following points are covered:

A good problem-drama:

o is based on a situation which is true to the real life of the audience.
o is based on a problem that is important to villagers.
o is unfinished but the narrator stops at an exciting point.
o is controversial so that the audience will want to discuss their ideas on how the problem should be solved.
o occurs over a short period of time.
o does not have too many characters.
o focuses on one major problem.
o has follow-up questions which lead to group discussion.

Involve the participants in a discussion of possible themes for problem-dramas, themes that relate to lesson context they wish to teach. They might recall situations involving village families which they have experienced or heard about.

Picture stories

1. Open-ended Drama

As with the problem-drama, the pictures represent the major events of a story that ends in a problem or a situation that is not completed. The audience is asked to suggest possible solutions or ways to end the story.

2. Problem-Drama with Several Solutions

The series of pictures can represent a story ending with a variety of possible solutions. The audience is asked which solution they would choose and why.

3. Problem with a Solution

The series of pictures present a complete story or action. The audience is asked to tell the drama as presented by the pictures and discuss their reactions to the solution. Was it right? Would they have done the same thing? Something else? Why?

Note: The questions a field worker asks with the pictures are as important as the pictures themselves.

Demonstrate using a series of pictures.

TRAINER'S REMINDER Prior to this activity, select approximately 7 related pictures (of people, places or' things) from your resource file, magazines or draw simple pictures on separate sheets of paper. You may think of a story these pictures could depict.

Explain that several photographs, magazine pictures, or hand-drawn pictures can be presented in a series. There are different ways in which these pictures can be used to cause people to think and share their opinions.

Ask the group to suggest ways that your series of pictures can be arrange to stimulate discussion. Ask one person to arrange the pictures and tell a story which they depict.

"GIVING A TALK"

The talk is one teaching method in which the field worker gives information to her audience. It is a method most teachers feel comfortable with. There are several advantages in giving a talk. For example:

1. Much information can be given in a short time.
2. A large group can be reached at one time.
3. Subjects with which the audience is not familiar can be more easily presented.

However, there are also disadvantages to lectures. For example:

1. When people only listen, they do not remember very much.
2. A talk cannot be used for teaching skills such as how to make supplementary foods.
3. Some people who give talks think that having information about the subject is enough and do not both to make the talk interesting.

TALKS: When to give a talk 1. To give Specific Information 2. To Reach a Large Group at One Time 3. To Introduce New or Unfamiliar Subjects

4. The talk alone is rarely effective; it should be used with other teaching methods such as questions, visuals, discussion, etc.

A first step is planning the talk. Careful preparation before a talk is important. The following steps are helpful:

1. Gather information from books, pamphlets, extension materials. Select the material that is best for your particular audience and that directly relates to the topic and the ideas you want to teach.

2. Arrange material in the sequence you will study and present it.

3. Decide how much time you will spend on each point. If the material is too lengthy, cut it down or plan two talks on the subject.

4. Write your headings and main points on a small card which you can look at from time to time. This will help you to remember all the important points.

PREPARING A TALK 1. Gather information 2. Arrange & sequence material 3. Decide on time; keep it short 4. Write an outline; keep it short 5. Plan questions and Audio-Visuals ahead of time.

Instead of one large card, you may prefer to use smaller flash cards, one for each point.

5. Plan questions or visual aids that will help the audience to participate and to better understand the talk.

There are some tips that will help you to give effective talks.

· Use only language that the audience understands and uses. Be friendly.
· Speak loudly and clearly so that everyone can hear.
· During the talk, after each main point, ask the audience questions to see if they understand. If not, try to explain in a different way.
· In the conclusion of your talk, repeat the important points. Never give new material in the conclusion. Than ask the audience for questions.

TIPS 1. Use understandable language. 2. Be friendly. 3. Speak loudly and clearly. 4. Ask questions. 5. Summarize important points.

HANDOUT 18C: Role Play Guidelines for Extension workers

I. Designing role plays

a. depict a familiar, critical problem that is important to the target group
b. focus on one major point
c. be clear and concise
d. make believable characters, not all good or bad
e. keep the role play simple and uncomplicated
f. try making the role play controversial to make the group members want to discuss their opinions and ideas afterwards
g. identify what simple props will aid in communicating the idea

II. Conducting role plays

a. before beginning, clarify the roles of the observers
b. be the role assigned for the entire role play
c. let yourself become emotionally involved, but do not overact
d. make data up if necessary, but make sure the information is believable
e. avoid consulting the script or notes during the presentation
f. de-role after the role play if necessary (especially with spontaneous role plays)

III. Processing role plays

a. The questions asked about the role play are as important as the role play itself
b. The first questions addressed to the group should draw out their interpretation of what went on
c. The rest of the follow-up questions should stimulate active group discussion

IV. Applying role plays a. An effective way to bring the processing of the role play to a close is to ask the group how they can make use of (apply) their observations and discussions of the role play.

HANDOUT 18D: People's theatre

Adapted From "People's Theatre as an Appropriate Media" by Martin L. Byram Appropriate Technology Vo. 7 No. 2 September, 1980

INTRODUCTION

There is a growing concern that educational media should be used and con-rolled by the people themselves rather than development experts so that it better serves their interests. Previously, technology choices in development orientated media of ten tended to emphasize expensive imports, creating dependencies on Foreign products and skills. Indigenous or people's media, on the other hand is low cost, requires no complex technical skills, and draws on the resources and creativity of the people. The cheapest and least complex of these is peoples' (village) theatre-drama, music, dance and puppetry performed by and for the people, using their language, and dealing with their issues.

People's theatre is technique used to involve communities in expressing their problems, discussing them and taking action. It provides a good draw for people who are normally bored with development meetings. As a collective expression and a communal activity it create the context for cooperative rather than individual thinking and action. As an oral medium in local languages it involves many people who are left out of development activities because of their illiteracy or very low education level .

There is no special expertise required for people's theatre and local villagers are involved in all aspects of the work- identifying the problems to be presented, preparing and giving the performances, and working out the strategies for community action. Since the actors and initiatives come from the community, there is a greater chance that the performance will lead to action.

This form of theatre is rough and improvised. There are no long rehersals, scripts or memorized lines. The actors agree on a scenario and improvise their words and actions within this basic structure. By using people's theatre we are not only improving communication or utilizing a low-cost media, but are also building on he cultural strength of the people and increasing their confidence and capacity in the process.

People's theatre is not designed simply to give people a chance to get their provinces and frustrations off their chest. It must lead to analysis and action.

PLANNING AND PRESENTING PEOPLE'S THEATRE

But mere expression of concerns and issues is not enough. The popular theatre programme is not designed simply to give people a chance to get their grievances and frustrations off their chest. It must lead to analysis and action. The theatre performance is merely the initial catalyst for an on going process of discussion, organization, and action. At the end of each performance the community meets to discuss the problems presented, to work out solutions, and organize for action.

This notion of people's theatre is different from the conventional concept promoted by many development groups whose view is that since folk media works (because of its legitimacy and familiarity among, the people) it should be used as a channel for development messages planned by development experts. In Botswana, on the other hand, people's theatre is used to express the people's own issues from their own perspective.

The drama provides an objective view of what is happening in the community which helps community members to stand back and look of it critically. Of course, other media have been used for similar purposes, e.g. film and video. Drama has the same immediacy as video for "playback" purposes but it has the added advantage of using the skills and resources in the community and avoiding the technical complexity and cost of video equipment. Video has been used in Botswana but its vulnerability to bumps, dust, and other problems from rural use and the difficulties of arranging regular servicing makes it a liability rather than a useful tool.

Organizing people's theatre involves four basic stages: a. gathering information about the community problems; b. planning and rehearsing the performance; c. giving the performance and organizing discussion; d. follow-up work.

These four stages are briefly described below

Gathering information
Two possible approaches are used to gather the information needed for the performance. One is to organize a workshop for community members during which the people meet in small groups and list all the issues and problems they feel are important. Then the whole workshop selects a few priority problems, which are chosen by looking at the following kinds of questions:

1. What problems are people willing to take action on?
2. What are the managable tasks that people can easily do, and do not involve large investments or rely on outside support?
3. What are the problems that people themselves can do something about rather than having to depend on government action?

At the end of the workshop each group takes one of the priority problems and prepares a short skit on it. This helps to provide ideas for preparing the actual village performance.

The disadvantages of the workshop approach is that there is a tendency only to obtain the views of the village leaders. An alternative approach Is to interview individuals and groups in the community. The purpose is the some: to allow people to talk about what they see to be the problems of the community.

Planning the performance

The first step is to list all the available information about the problems that have been selected. This includes information gathered at the workshop, or in the interviews, and from the actors' own experience. Listing what people already mow about the problems, and discussing what it is that stops them from solving these, helps the actors to decide upon the most realistic way of presenting the problems and any possible solutions.

Once the relevant information has been listed, the actors can begin to create the performance. As a first step they have to decide what form of media to use-drama song, puppetry, or dance- to present the problems. A combination of these might be used to reinforce the issues, for example:

- venereal Disease - song dance, drama.
- Sanitation puppetry, dance.
- Nutrition - drama, song puppetry
- Pesticide Abuse - drama, song puppetry.

Through a process of improvisation and self-criticism a performance is constructed and rehearsed. Realism is the guiding criterion; does the performance reflect the community situation?

The performance

The performance is given at the village meeting place. A simple stage area is created by erecting a backcloth. Actors can enter or leave the stage by appearing from or disappearing behind the backcloth. The back cloth is placed in such a position that the audience can #e the performance whilst sitting in the shade. The event is publicised in advance by the village extension workers, through the village organizations, and by public notices.

There are many ways in which to present the performance. We have always encouraged the audience to join in, and explain what will be happening at the beginning. We have also made a pant of telling the audience that there will be a discussion after the performance. Then it begins. The actors try to keep the performance short and lively and in order to make it a more polished and enjoyable event for the audience, a few simple rules are used: only one actor speaking at a time; speaking laudly; facing the audience-; and having the props' ready. Props are kept to a minimum; a table and a chair might be used to represent a bar, for example.

Immediately after the performance, the discussion is organized. The actors move into the audience and arrange small discussion groups. The discussion focuses on what people saw in the performance and its relevance to their own village. They are encouraged to find possible solutions to their problems. After a while the groups are brought back together to give their reports to the whole audience. An open discussion is held with an emphasis on trying to get consensus on appropriate solutions and

The performance helps to make people more aware of their problems. However, in a one-day performance it is difficult to provide all the detailed information and advice necessary for people to change their way of doing things. A lot of questions remain to be answered. A follow-up programme is needed to help answer these question and provide support for community action. The follow-up programme does not need to be elaborate. It may, for example, simply involve training extension workers to give factual talks, or helping villagers obtain the materials required for their community action projects. It is important, however, that the follow up takes place as soon as possible after the performance.

Handouts 20A to 27D

HANDOUT 20A: Evaluation for Method Demonstration

Demonstrator

1. Appropriately dressed.
2. Conveyed enthusiasm.
3. Maintained eye contact with the audience.
4. Spoke smoothly while using vocabulary directed to the educational level of the audience.
5. The verb tenses and basic grammatical structures used permitted the demonstration to be understood.
6. Spoke clearly the key words (verbs, technical vocabulary).
7. Showed control over the audience.
8. Kept to the topic of the demonstration.
9. Appeared comfortable and self-assured in front of the audience.
10. Greeted and said goodbye to the audience according to local customs.
11. Demonstrated sensibility to the local culture.
12. Presented the demonstration without using notes.

Presentation

13. All materials, supplies and equipment were on hand before beginning.
14. Emphasized to the audience 3 reasons why it is important to adopt the practice to be introduced.
15. Included the components of a demonstration in the order indicated (introduction, material, procedure, summary, thank you, goodbye).
16. Made use of non verbal communication (visual aids, etc.).
17. Involved the audience in the practical part of the demonstration.
18. Understood and answered adequately the questions asked.
19. Showed competency in the technical area of the topic discussed.
20. The demonstration convinced you that the practice presented is beneficial.

HANDOUT 20B: Planning a Method Demonstration

1. Demonstration

2. Why is this demonstration important to your audience?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

3. Materials needed for this demonstration.

a. Equipment and Supplies.

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)

b. Visual Aids and Handouts.

(1)
(2)
(3)

4. Presenting the Demonstration:

Presenting the Demonstration:

STEP BY STEP DEMONSTRATION	KEY POINTS

5. Summary
6. Thank you and Goodbye (handshake)

HANDOUT 20C: Method Demonstration Guidelines

Purpose

It is very important that you have clearly in your mind the exact purpose of your demonstration. If your purpose is not clear to you, you will not be able to communicate it clearly to someone else.

The first thing you must consider in giving a demonstration is your audience. The following is a list of questions which should be considered when planning a demonstration.

1. How large is your audience?
2. Is there an optimum size?
3. What is the audience interest?
4. What is the audience's age?
5. What is the audience's level of education?
6. How much does the audience know about the subject?

Key points:

7. If the subject of demonstration is new to the audience, can it be related to some experience or subject common to all?
8. Does implementing demonstration techniques involve financial or emotional risk to members of the audience?

Planning

Secondly, you should plan the procedure step by step to eliminate confusion, keep things moving smoothly, ensure correct results and, most important of all, know your subject matter.

1. You should limit the scope of the demonstration, so that it covers only one subject, can be covered well and is not so long as to lose the attention of the audience.

2. If the demonstration is part of a series of demonstrations necessary to convey a complete idea, try to include a minimum of material connecting it to succeeding demonstrations.

3. Be sure you have all the materials and implements necessary to do the demonstration. Do not rely on people to bring a necessary implement or material when they come to the demonstration. Have it ready beforehand.

4. Will the villager have all the tools and materials necessary to implement what you have demonstrated? If not, can you help to obtain them?

5. Be sure you can handle the tools necessary for the demonstration sufficiently well to be credible.

6. Bow much work is needed to adequately demonstrate the process?

7. Know all technical terms necessary for the demonstration.

8. If the demonstration is new to you, do it by yourself once to be sure of steps, problems, etc.

9. Think about ways to reinforce learning (i.e., will it be necessary to work with each person who attended the demonstration on an individual basis? A repeat demonstration?).

10. Think of ways to get people to come (for example, send word with school children, individual home visits, community notices).

11. You may want to keep a list of persons who attended the demonstration to help you remember who will need a follow-up visit and, if you are giving a series of demonstrations, to know who missed which demonstration.

Visual Aids

Visual aids can play an important part in a demonstration. A visual aid need not be a drawing. It can be a model, a finished product, a picture or a photo. Any visual aid used should be an integral part of the demonstration and not something which will be distracting in itself. The following are some questions to be considered when developing visual aids for a demonstration (since the meaning of "visual aids" may differ from what you intend or to what villagers understand in their culture):

1. Does the demonstration require visual aids?
2. Can something else be used more effectively?
3. Do the aids need to be drawn?
4. Should they be drawn before or during the demonstration?
5. Is the audience acquainted with visual aids?
6. Is it simple enough to be understood?
7. Are you sure your picture conveys the message you intend in a cross-cultural situation?

Demonstration

If the demonstration has been carefully planned, the actual demonstration should go well.

1. Begin with a simple introduction, thanking the people for coming, particularly any community leader(s) present. Shake everyone's hand.

2. You may want to start the demonstration by getting the audience into a directed discussion which will lead to the realization of the need for or usefulness of that project, method or process which you are about to demonstrate.

Make sure the participants provide or you state at least 3 reasons for adopting the new practice at the beginning of your demonstration. If they do not understand the why of the demonstration, they probably will not be very motivated to listen and participate.

3. Explain preliminary layout of materials, tools, etc.

4. Work through steps according to your plan, explaining each step as you go. This is particularly important when the steps have a specific order.

5. Have visual aids at hand so there will be no interruption while going to get them or taking the audience to a room to use the blackboard.

6. Ask if there are any questions after each step.

7. When you are finished, summarize the procedure.

8. Offer to help all the participants when they try what you have demonstrated. Set a specific date for individual help if the person shows sufficient interest.

9. Thank the people again for attending the demonstration. Do a farewell handshake.

HANDOUT 21A: Use of Vegetable Oils to Protect Stored Beans from Weevil Attack

Adapted from Journal of Economic Entomology, April, 1978, pp. 254-256, volume 71. number 2 by A.V. Schoon Hoven.

ADDRESS: Centro International de Agricultural Tropical Apartado Aero 6713 Cali, Colombia

Ancient Indian methods protected stored pulses (beans) from weevil attack by using vegetable oils. Cow peas treated with groundnut oil (5-10 milliliters per kilogram) protected seed up to 6 months while preserving germination. The thin oil layer is believed to block oxygen supply to the embryo of this storage pest.

Vegetable oils were tested to protect stored dry beans, Phaseouls Vulgaris L., against attack by a weevel, Zabrotes Subfasciatus. This pest and some other weevils affix their eggs to the seed coat within a protective cover. Different vegetables oils (African palm, cotton seed, maize, soy bean, peanut, or coconut palm) when mixed at the rate of 5-10 milliliters per kilogram of see all provided some control for over 75 days, in this test. African palm oil and crude cotton see oil gave nearly complete protection at the 5 milliliter per kilogram of seed treatment level. Manual mixing of oil gave significantly less protection than mechanical tumbler mixing (35 rpm for 5 minutes). Apparently, manual mixing did not completely cover the seed with an oil layer.

Germination of beans treated with different oils remained equal to that of Malathion treated beans over the 6 month test period.

It should be noted that crude oils are not only cheaper than refined oils, but also contain more antioxidants, which delay rancidity. Rancidity could be a negative side effect of oil treatments on taste. These oil treatments are non-toxic, preserve seed germination and are simple and inexpensive to apply by the small farmer or consumer.

NOTE: 5-10 milliliters per kilogram is equal to 1/2 to 1 teaspoon per pound.

HANDOUT 26A: Evaluation Checklist for Dryers and Stores

Compare to the local method for:

· Quality
· Simplicity
· Ease of Use

Culturally acceptable? (Meets an established need?)
Large enough?
Ease of maintenance?
What does it cost? (What is the mix of local and imported resources used?)
Design review accomplished? (Modifications to improve it; performance checks, such as air flow.)
Temperatures achieve? (Right temperature range? Adequate range of vent size openings?)
Simplicity? (Uses the least items to make, is understandable, does most easily the job which needs to be done?)
Suits the user population? (i.e., light enough for kids or women to move if that is required?)
Construction process? (How did it go? How to do it? Lessons learned? Problems/solutions? Time to build?)

HANDOUT 27A: Program Evaluation

Please rate your general satisfaction with the training program:

1. General satisfaction:

1	2	3	4	5
Not Satisfied at all				Extremely Satisfied

2. Have your expectations been met? Why or why not?
3. Which session proved most useful?
4. Which session was not useful?
5. Do you have any specific feedback for any of the trainers?
6. What has gone well?
7. What hasn't gone well?

HANDOUT 27B: Appropriate technology information and resource list

Information Collection & Exchange Office of Multilateral and Special Programs ACTION/Peace Corps 806 Connecticut Ave. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20525 (for program and training journals, and appropriate technology information)

Farallones Institute Rural Center 15290 Coleman Valley Road Occidental, CA 95465 Farallones Institute Urban House 1516 5th Street Berkeley, CA 94710 (plans, drawings, publications, info) Aprovecho Institute 359 Polk Street Eugene, OR 97402 503-929-6925

Community Environmental Council 924 Anacapa St., Suite B4 Santa Barbara, CA 93101 (drawings, publications, info) Institute for Local Self-Reliance 1717 18th St., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20009 (charts, drawings, publication, info) New Alchemy Institute 237 Hatchville Rd. East Falmouth, MA 02536 (info and monthly journal) Appropriate Technology International 1724 Massachusetts Ave. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 202-2939270 (funding & info for Third World groups)

Hesperian Foundation P.O. Box 1692 Palto Alto, CA 94302 415-327-4576 (Health & selfhelp info)

INFORMATION WITH PUBLICATIONS Newsletters and books

Volunteers in Technical Assistance 1815 N. Lynn St. Suite 200 Arlington, VA 22209 (monthly newsletter, technical assistance service & VITA Village Technology Handbook in Spanish and English)

Appropriate Technology Project Volunteers in Asia Box 4543 Stanford, CA 94305 (excellent Appropriate Technology Sourcebook to get you to what you are looking for)

Intermediate Technology Development Group 9 King St. London WCQE 8HN ENGLAND (quarterly Journal of Appropriate Technology - if you only have one to subscribe to, this is it' and publications list on everything you can imagine)

International Association for the Advancement of Appropriate Technologies for Developing Countries University of Michigan 603 East Madison Ann Arbor, MI 48109 313-764-6410 (monthly journal called Approtech)

Transnational Network for Appropriate Technologies (TRANET) P.O. Box 567 Rangeley, ME 04970 (excellent networking and ideas-oriented newsletter)

Vecinos Mundiales/World Neighbors 5116 North Portland Avenue Oklahoma City, OK 73112 (quarterly magazine in both Spanish and English; excellent for material on work you might do in community development)

Brace Research Institute McDonald College of McGill University Ste. Anne de Bellevue, P.Q. HOA 1CO Canada (lots of technical information) Canadian Hunger Foundation 75 Sparks Street Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5A5 Canada (last two groups have jointly published A Handbook in Appropriate Technology) Technical Assistance Information Clearinghouse (TAICH) 200 Park Avenue, South New York, N.Y. 10002 (newsletter on world issues)

Whole Earth Truck Store 558 Santa Cruz Avenue Menlo Park, CA 94025 (bibliography list and mail order of anything, alomst!)

HANDOUT 27C: Descriptive Bibliography of Solar Dryers and Storage Devices

A. Solar Dryers

1. A Survey of Solar Agricultural Dryers - Report T99, Dec. 1975.
This Survey contains the history, use, plans and drawings of solar dryers from throughout the world. Locally designed and built dryers are of special interest. Full of technical data and useful drawings and plans.

2. Preserving Food by Drying. A Math/Science Teaching Manual (Manual #M-10)
A very good teaching manual for people involved in education at the junior high or high school level. Describes the physics of solar energy design and the physiology of dryed foods, health and nutrition.

3. Proceedings of the Solar Dryer Workshop, Manila, Philippines, 1978.
Focus of this book is the drying of foods in humid tropical regions of the world. More technical, less practical.

B. Drying and Storage

1. Postharvest Food Losses in Developing Countries.
An excellent book describing food losses and how to control them. Complete with photographs of improved storage devices from around the world. Focus on using low-cost improvements which utilize local materials and resources.

2. Small Farm Grain Storage
A complete manual on solar dryers, back-up heaters, improved storage devices, and enemies of stored grain. Good information on control of insects and rodents. Full of clear drawings, charts, and plans.

3. Village Technology in Eastern Africa
Focus on improving health and nutrition of women and children through the use of appropriate technologies. Short section on solar dryers and improved food storage devices.

C. Grain Storage

1. Appropriate Technology for Grain Storage
Report of one village dealing with their food storage problems in 8 weeks using the dialogue approach to community development. Focus on improving local grain storage techniques using simple, low-cost, locally designed and built devices.

2. Programming and Training for Small Farm Grain Storage
Complements Small Farm Grain Storage, with focus on methods of taking that information to farms and rural areas.

3. Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas
#12, Hall, D.W., 1975, 2nd Ed., Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, ITALY

An excellent, detailed and highly technical handbook on storage of food grains, from smallscale to large scale. Full of useful information for trainers, agriculturalists and extension workers.

HANDOUT 27D: Solar Drying and Improved Food Storage Bibliography

1. SOLAR DRYING IN THE TROPICS, Meals For Millions/Freedom From Hunger Foundation, P.O. Box 680, Santa Monica, CA 90406, USA

2. SUN DRYING YOUR FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA.

3. PRESERVING FOOD BY DRYING, Peace Corps, Information Collection and Exchange, 806 Connecticut Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20526, USA.

4. APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY FOR GRAIN STORAGE, 1976, Economic Development Bureau, 234 Colony Road, New Haven, CT 06511, USA

5. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOLAR DRYING WORKSHOP, Manila, Philippines, October 18-21, 1978, Bureau of Energy Development, Ministry of Energy, Fort Bonifacio, Makita, Metro Manila, PHILIPPINES.

6. SURVEY OF SOLAR AGRICULTURAL DRYERS, Technical Report T 99, Brace Research Institute, MacDonald College of McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, CANADA H9X 3MI.

7. PUTTING FOOD BY, Hertzberg, R., Stephen Greene Press, Box 1000, Brattleboro, VT 05301, USA.

8. SMALL SCALE GRAIN RAISING, Logsdon, G. Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania, USA.

9. VILLAGE TECHNOLOGY IN EASTERN AFRICA, UNICEF, Eastern Africa Regional Office, P.O. Box 44145, Nairobi, KENYA.

10. FOOD PRESERVATION, RURAL HOME TECHNIQUES, Vol. 5, FAO, Economic and Social Development Series, FAO, Rome, ITALY.

11. MANUAL OF IMPROVED FARM AND VILLAGE—LEVEL GRAIN STORAGE METHODS, Dichter, D & Assoc., 1978.

12. HANDLING & STORAGE OF FOOD GRAINS IN TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL AREAS, Hall, D.W. 1975, 2nd Ed. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, ITALY.

13. POST HARVEST FOOD LOSSES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 1978.

14. SMALL FARM GRAIN STORAGE, Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange, 806 Connecticut Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20525, USA.

15. SOLAR FOOD DRYER, Rodale Plans, 33 East Minor St., Emmaus, PA 18049.

16. PROGRAMMING AND TRAINING FOR SMALL FARM GRAIN STORAGE, PC ICE, 806 Connecticut Ave., NW. Washington, D.C. 20526

17. LOW TEMPERATURE AND SOLAR GRAIN DRYING HANDBOOK, Midwest Plan service. Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.

18. POSTHARVEST GRAIN LOSS ASSESSMENT METHODS, American Association of General Chemists, St. Paul, MN, USA.

Handouts A1 to A5

HANDOUT A1: Technical Solar Dryer Design Information

This handout is intended for those who would like more technical information on the design of solar dryers. Technical information is given in a step-by-step method, showing how an enclosed solar dryer can be designed and built for any crop under any climate condition by showing many examples. This handout refers to and complements other handouts in the Participant's Notebook, especially Handouts 2A, 2B, 5B, 5C, 6A, 13A, 13B and 13C. The following acts as a decision-making flowchart, reference guide as well as a table of contents.

Before you begin to design a solar crop dryer, you need to decide on the crop to be dried and the weight of the crop to be dried at one time. Then follow these steps:

Step A. How to find percent moisture, wet basis
Step B. How to find the weight of water that needs to be removed from your crop
Step C. How to find out how much air has to pass through your crop to dry it
Step D. How to find the volume of air from the weight of air
Step E. How to find the flow rate through the dryer
Step F. How to find the area of solar collector needed
Step G. How to figure vent area needed

Then compile this information into a rough plan, model or design, evaluate it for cost, simplicity, feasibility, etc. and either build it or re-design it, repeating the above procedures, using different numbers (i.e., try drying less grain, or pre-dry your crop by airdrying, or install a fuel-fired, rainy season dryer, etc.)

Step A

How to find percent moisture (M), wet basis:

	Example:
Where:	10kg of fresh maize weighs 8kg when dry
M = percent moisture	w = 10kg
w = weight of wet sample	d = 8kg
d = weight of dry sample
* dry = oven dried at 222°C (450°F) for 48 hours

Step B

How to find out how much water (mw) must be removed from your crop:

Use the formula:	Example:
mw = mass (weight of water to	How much water must be removed from100kg groundnuts in reducing the initial moisture of 26% to the final moisture of 14%?
be removed)	Substituting:
Wi = initial mass (weight) of crop to be dried
Mi = initial percent moisture of the crop
Mf = final percent moisture of the crop

Step C

How to find out how much air has to pass through the crop to dry it.

There are two methods:

1. using the psychometric chart, and
2. using the energy balance equation.

Step C1 - Using the psychrometric chart

Example: You want to dry one kilogram of rice from initial moisture content of 22% to the final moisture content of 14% using the dryer shown:

Section view through a solar rice dryer:

The ambient air temperature (t1 in the diagram) is 30°C and the relative humidity (RH1 in the diagram) is 80%. Ambient air is shown as Point A on the sample psychrometric chart:

Chart

As the ambient air (Point A) is heated in the solar collector (pre-heater) part of the dryer, the air heats to 45°C (t2) and the relative humidity drops to 35% (RH2), which is Point B on the psychrometric chart. The path A - B represents the heating of the air in the solar collector, keeping a constant humidity ratio and so moving parallel to the dry bulb temperature axis. As the heated air passes through the rice, it picks up moisture from the rice and cools down, moving along the curve of the wet bulb temperature. Initially, when the rice is quite wet, the air picks up a lot of moisture from the rice. This increases the relative humidity (95% = RH), and lowers the temperature to 31°C (to t3), which is Point C on the psychrometric chart.

Later, as the rice becomes drier, the air picks up less moisture from the rice and its relative humidity (75% = RH4) does not increase as much and the temperature (35°C, t4) does not drop as much. This is Point D on the psychrometric chart. The humidity ratio rose from 0.0225 (Point B) to 0.0275 (Point D). The difference (0.0275 - 0.0225 = 0.005) is the amount of water (kg water vapor per kg of dry air) carried away from the grain by the air.

The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) (see Handout 13B) of the rice at Point C can be found in Table 1, "The Equilibrium Moisture Content of Rough Rice, Per Cent Wet Basis": t3 =31°C and RH3 = 95%. By interpolating and extrapolating the figures in Table 1, Point C has an EMC of 18% (which is still too high for one year's safe storage).

The EMC for Point D (t4 = 34°C and RH4 = 75%) can be interpolated from Table 1 and found to be 14% (which is the desired final moisture content and the moisture content for one year's safe storage).

Table 1: Equilibrium Moisture Content* of Rough Rice, Per Cent Wet Basis
Dry Bulb Temperature (°C)	Relative Humidity of Air (%)
	20	30	40	50	60	70	80	90
10	8	9	11	12	13	14	16	19
20	7	9	10	11	13	14	15	18
30	7	8	9	11	12	13	15	17
40	6	7	8	10	11	12	14	17

* Equilibrium Moisture Content is the moisture level at which rough rice will stabilize when exposed to the temperature and relative humidity levels shown.

The amount of water to be extracted from 1kg of rice in this case can be figured using the equation found in Step B of this handout:

From the definition of Humidity Ratio (weight of water vapor in the air to the weight of dry gases in the same air), it follows that the mass of air needed (ma) in this case, where Humidity Ratio rose by 0.005, is:

We can transform this weight of dry air (ma) to volume (V) with the equation from Step D of this handout: PV = m_a R t

Where P = 101.3 kPa (normal barometric pressure at sea level), and

t = 308°K (35°C, OR = 273 + °C), and
m_a = 18.6 kg, then

Step C2 Using the Energy Balance Equation

The Energy Balance is an equation that expresses the following idea mathematically: The energy available from the air going through the food inside a dryer should be equal to the energy needed to evaporate the amount of water to be removed from the crop.

The task in solar dryer design is to calculate and then achieve optimum temperature (tf) and air flow (ma per time) to remove the specified amount of water (mw).

The formula is: m_a C_p (t_i - t_f) = m_w L

Where:

m_a = mass (or weight) of the drying air
C_p = Specific Heat Capacity of Air
C_p = Amount of heat air can hold per degree of its temperature rise.

C_p varies a bit with humidity and temperature, but use 1.02 KJ/kg°C

EXAMPLE:

How much more heat energy (E) can be held if the temperature of 3kg of air rises from 35 to 40°C?

E = 1.02 KJ/kg°C x 3 kg x (40-35) = 1.02 x 3 x 5
E = 15.3 KJ (KJ = kilo Joule. 1 KJ = 1 BTU = 0.25 Kcal)

t_i = initial (or ambient, or inlet) temperature
t_f = final (or outlet, or maximum) temperature (see Handouts 2A and 13C)
m_w = mass (or weight) of water to be removed by evaporation (see Step B)
L = Latent Heat of Vaporization of water
L = amount of energy needed to vaporize (evaporate) each unit (gram, pound, etc.) of water from the crop.

For free water in an open pan, L = 2,400 KJ/kg (KJ = kilo Joules, a measure of energy). For water from crops, it's a bit more because the water has to be extracted from the crop. L also varies with temperature and moisture content, but use the amount 2,800 KJ/kg in your calculations.

We have calculated above (using the formula from Step B) that the amount of water to be removed (mw) = 0.093 kg. We know the two constants, L = Latent Heat of vaporization = 2,800 KJ/kg, and C_p = Specific Heat of Air = 1.02 KJ/kg°C.

Assuming initial temperature (t_i) = 45°C and the final temperature (t_f) = 32°C, we can substitute into the Energy Balance Equation:

(m_a C_p (t_i - t_f) = m_w L)

to get:

We can translate this figure to m³ using the Rule of Thumb from Step D: (1 kg of air = 0.9 m³ or PV = m_a R_t and we get 17.3 m³ of air.

Notice that this result (17.3 m³ of air) is not identical to the 16.5 m³ of air calculated in Method Number 1, using the Psychrometric Chart. However, the results are close enough for solar dryer design work.

Step D

How to figure volume (V) of air from weight (ma)

Air is usually quantified by its volume (V), pressure (P) and temperature (t).

Use the formula: PV = m_a R t

Where:

P = Pressure (in kiloPascals, or kPa)
V = Volume (m³)
t = temperature (°Kelvin, or °K) (°K = 273 + °C)
m_a = mass (weight) of air
R = A constant factor, equal to 0.291 kPa m³/kg °K

Example:

What is the volume of 1kg of air at 300°K (27°C) and barometric pressure of 101.325 kPa?

Substituting: 101.325 x	V = 1 kg x 0.291 x 300°K
	V = 87.3/101.325 = 0.86 m³

The Rule of Thumb is that the volume of 1kg of warm air (35°C or 308°K) and normal pressure (P = 101.325 kPa) is 0.9 m³. Notice how the volume of air changes slightly with temperature and relative humidity on the psychrometric chart.

Step E

How to figure air flow rate:

Example:

We want to dry 1,000kg of rice. We know, from Step C, that it takes approximately 17 m³ of air per kg of rice, so for 1,000kg, we will need 17,000 m³ of air total. If we assume it will take four days to dry the grain at 7-1/2 hours of sunshine per day, this air will take 30 hours to flow through the grain, which is:

= 566.67 m³/hr = 9.44 m³/minute 30 hours

Step F

How to figure area of solar collector needed:

Use the formula:

A = =

Where:

A = Area of solar collector needed, (m²)
m_w = mass (weight) of water to be evaporated

(0.093 x 1,000kg grain = 93kg)

L = latent heat of vaporization = 2,800 KJ/kg
K = a constant to convert from kJ to MJ = 1 MJ/1,000 kJ
Q = the daily insolation rate = 15 MJ/m² day
E = the efficiency of the solar collector = 25%
D = number of days = 4 (from step E)

Notes: *	KJ = mega Joule = 1,000,000 Joules = 1,000 kilo
	Joules = 1,000 Kj
	*Typical insolation rates range from 5 - 25 MJ/m² day, but use 15 MJ/m² day

Step G

Bow to figure vent area (two methods)

Method 1

If you have the required flow rate already figured (see Step E), then use this formula:

Example:

Step E shows a flow rate of 9.44 m³/minute is required to dry our 1,000 kg of rice in four days. Checking our other resources (Handouts 2A, 13C) we find that the maximum allowable drying temperature for rice for human food is 45°C. The ambient air temperature is 30°C. Change in temperature (/ t) = 45°C - 30°C = 15°C. Assume the vertical height of the dryer is 4 meters between inlet vent and outlet vent. Substituting:

Method Number 2

If you have calculated a collector aperture (area) and have some idea of solar intensity (Insolation Rate), then use this formula:

Assume that a maximum of 15% of the total daily radiation falls in the hottest mid-day hour (0.15 x 25 MJ/m² day = 3.75 MJ/m² hr). Converting to kcal/m² hr.

Use the collector aperture (A) found in Step F.: A = 17.5 m² Let a t = 15°C and Height = 4 m

Substituting:

Note: This vent size area has been calculated using a very high insolation rate. By substituting a high insolation rate, your vents will be large enough to always prevent overheating, even under the most intense sun conditions. If the sun conditions are not at their maximum, you can always close the outlet vent to raise the internal temperature of the dryer, if necessary. (For example, with the lower insolation rate of 15 MJ/m² day, the vent area will only need to be 8,030 cm², or about half.)

HANDOUT A1: THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

The upper curve of the chart is for saturated air and is labelled wet-bulb and dewpoint temperature. (The word "dewpoint" arose from the observation that dew forms on grass when the grass cools, by radiation to the sky, to a temperature equal to or less than the wetbulb temperature of the air above it.)

Psychrometric Chart for Barometric Pressure 101.325 kPa

The other curves on the psychrometric chart that are similar in shape to the wet-bulb line are lines of constant relative humidity (in %). By definition, relative humidity is a ratio: the partial pressure of the water vapor at a given temperature - the saturation pressure of the water vapor at the same temperature. The scale at the left side of the chart gives the pressures.

The straight lines sloping gently downward to the right are lines of constant wet-bulb temperatures. The intersection of a dry-bulb and a wet-bulb line gives the state of the air for a given moisture content and relative humidity. The lines of constant wet-bulb temperature also give values of constant enthalpy (total heat content), measured in heat units per unit weight of dry air.

Other lines sloping more steeply to the right give the specific volume of dry air, the volume occupied by one kilogram of dry air under the indicated conditions.

In examining a psychrometric chart, note that:

· Processes in which air is heated or cooled without change in moisture content give horizontal lines. Heating along such lines will decrease the relative humidity, while cooling will increase it.

· The wet-bulb temperature lines, sloping downward to the right, are lines of adiabatic cooling (where there is no change in heat content). These lines typify drying processes in which air is passed over the surface of wet material and is cooled by evaporation of water from the material. Lines of constant total heat parallel these wet-bulb lines.

· Although no processes follow the lines giving the specific volume of dry air, these lines show that at any given dry-bulb temperature, the density of air decreases as either the temperature or the relative humidity rises.

HANDOUT A2: PLOTTING AZIMUTH AND ALTITUDE

Step 1

Step 2

Step 1 Find the azimuth of the obstacle (tree) by lining up your eye, the center or the compass and the obstacle. Be sure the compass is corrected for magnetic variation. Read the azimuth of the obstacle, 160° in this example.

Step 2 Find the altitude by - lining up your eye with the top of the obstacle along the straight edge of the protractor The plumb bob will register the altitude, 20° in this example.

Step 3

Step 3 Plot the azimuth (160° from Step 1) and the altitude (20° from Step 2) on the shade mapping worksheet as shown. If the December 21 sun path does not cross the image of the obstacle (tree), the obstacle will not shade the collector at this solar site.

Step 4 Locate all possible obstacles and plot them on the shade mapping worksheet. Analyze the data to determine if the potential solar site is actually a good solar site.

Shade Mapping Worksheet

Solar altitude (Degrees)

HANDOUT A5: THE OFPISA PROBLEM SOLVING MODEL

Buckminster Fuller said that a problem well stated is a problem solved. In order to state a problem completely and well, as much relevant information as possible must be gathered, The following model is designed to assist in the definition of the problem, the examination of all its aspects and an acceptable resolution to the conflicts and challenges presented by it.

In the model, first the original problem is stated. This may also be a goal, objective or issue.

Then, the factors relating to the problem are listed. The problem may be defined as a temporary equilibrium between factors that move toward change and those that restrain it. In order to solve the problem, the equilibrium or tension must be broken. The equilibrium may be likened to a force field: the problem is held static between opposing forces that push and pull. All factors are listed that have any bearing on the problem. One list notes the driving forces toward resolution and another notes factors that serve as restraining forces. The journalistic "w's" are useful in identifying the factors: who, what, why, where, when and how.

The problem redefined or restated is considered next. After all the factors both for and against resolution are identified, the real problem may emerge. This may be a simple restatement of the original problem or it may be another problem entirely, based on new information provided by examining the various factors.

Many and different ideas are generated by brainstorming: all ideas, suggestions and possible solutions are listed without discriminating among them. These serve to either increase the forces driving towards resolution or decrease the restraining forces. The brainstormed list may be comprised of logical, sensible ideas as well as those that seem crazy or not at all feasible. It should be remembered that most of the important or major inventions of the world had their origin in a "strange" idea that somehow worked! Therefore, judgment should be suspended during this phase and all creative suggestions listed, regardless of their initial appearance.

To devise a solution to the problem, a selection and comparison of the various ideas are made, thereby generating concrete and potentially viable solutions

Each potential solution is evaluated to determine its acceptance by those affected by it. If the solution is not acceptable, another solution must be tried. If it is viable, then it is implemented and the problem has begun to be resolved.

One way of remembering this model is to term it the OFPISA (as in the leaning tower):

O - Original problem
F - Factors
P - Problem redefined
I - Ideas
S - Solutions
A - Acceptance

PROBLEM SOLVING WORKSHEET

O - Original Problem
F - Factors:	Driving Forces	Restraining Forces
P - Problem Restatement
I - Ideas
S - Solution
A - Acceptance