Amaranth to Zai Holes, Ideas for Growing Food under Difficult Conditions (ECHO, 1996, 397 p.) ECHO development notes: issue 53 (introduction...) Fifty-one issues of edn in one book! Position announcement. The nutritive value of chaya, one of the most productive green vegetables Solar water disinfection ''Why don't my tomatoes set fruit?'' Insights from a biogas project. Malnutrition and child mortality List of distance learning courses is available from ECHO. From ECHO's seedbank Echoes from our network Upcoming events Books and other resources

Amaranth to Zai Holes, Ideas for Growing Food under Difficult Conditions (ECHO, 1996, 397 p.)

ECHO development notes: issue 53

Echo Development Notes
Issue 53, July 1996
Edited By Martin L. Price and Laura S. Meitzner

Fifty-one issues of edn in one book!

ECHO Development Notes informs you about plants, resources, technologies, and contacts to improve food production in the tropics. We link a worldwide network of people so you can learn about and try ideas which have succeeded in other regions. Amaranth to Zai Holes: Ideas for Growing Food Under Difficult Conditions (404 pp.) is an updated and expanded compilation of the first fifty-one issues of EDN, from 1981 to January 1996. We hope this is a resource you cannot do without!

The articles are arranged by topic: Basics of agricultural development, Tropical vegetables and fruits, Staple Crops, Multipurpose trees, Farming Systems, Soil health, Water resources, Pest control, Animals, Food science, Human health, Seeds, Technologies, From farm to market, Training and missionary resources, Oil crops, and Above-ground gardening.

The chapters offer a combination of details on ideas you can try right now, some research questions, and key books and organizations. It is a handbook for choosing and testing new ideas, as well as a basic reference book to guide you to tropical plants suited to your climate, contacts specializing in each field, and sources for seed and equipment. The book gives you a head start on finding your own answers to a wide variety of questions.

We have worked hard to make it inviting for you to use: almost every page has an illustration, and a new index makes it easier to find the information you need. We updated articles and contacts, included our most-requested Technical Notes, and direct you to many of the resources we use at ECHO to answer your technical questions. Even if you have a backset of EDN, you will appreciate the current information and easy-to-use format.

We hope that most members of our network order a copy of Amaranth to Zai Holes. The book costs US$29.95 plus postage in North America, but there is a special discount for members of ECHO's overseas network. If you qualify for a free subscription to EDN, prices are as follows: in the Americas, US$25 includes airmail; in Europe, Africa, and Asia, $25 includes surface mail and $35 includes air mail. We accept only US dollars. Write a check to "ECHO" or give us your Mastercard/Visa number, and expiration date and signed authorization to charge your account. To order a large quantity, contact us first for shipping details. This will be a great resource as you evaluate new ways to help people produce their food and make a living in the tropics. Return to Index.

Position announcement.

ECHO is adding a senior staff position in 1996 or 1997. The person chosen will have several years' experience in areas that will make him or her a great resource person for our network.

ECHO emphasizes the use of plants in agricultural development, but we have become a resource center for a broad range of issues faced by those working with small farmers. Consequently we need a core of people who are knowledgeable about many things and who have alert minds to filter all they hear and read for relevant ideas, techniques, information and seed sources to enrich the ministry of those in our network. In a few years we will probably have 3-4 technical people, each specializing in 1/3 to 1/4 of the areas of interest that ECHO covers.

The person chosen must have a devout Christian walk that can be a model for and earn respect from staff and interns; first-rate technical competence on a wide range of agricultural issues relevant to development and mission work; perspective that comes from extensive experience; a teacher's heart, to mentor interns and students; "perceived stature" as a valued consultant so that members of ECHO's network will consider a visit to us even more valuable; be very approachable, apt to listen first, then share just the right things to meet the expressed need. Requirements include at least a bachelor's degree and US citizenship or permission already granted to work in the USA. If you are interested, write first for more details and an application. (E-mail version is available.) Return to Index.

The nutritive value of chaya, one of the most productive green vegetables

The nutritive value of chaya, one of the most productive green vegetables, was the subject of a recent question at ECHO. Many of you wrote for Moringa seed in response to the article on a leaf-based diet for pigs (EDN 51-1). Some asked, "Are there other plants which can be used in the same way?"

We immediately thought of chaya (Cnidoscolus chayamansa, EDN 18-2), an attractive perennial shrub native to Mexico which produces abundant quantities of large, dark green leaves. Chaya thrives on a wide range of soils in both hot, rainy climates and areas with occasional drought. It grows very quickly, especially at higher temperatures, and resprouts well after harvesting. Young leaves and the thick, tender stem tips are cut and boiled as a spinach. It is a tasty vegetable, and is exceptionally high in protein, calcium, iron, and vitamin A. Chaya is virtually pest-free and has low weed potential, as it is propagated only by cuttings and does not generally produce seed. As a year-round source of high-quality food in a wide range of conditions, it is one of the most important plants at ECHO. [Important: many chaya varieties have stinging hairs which are very irritating during harvest. ECHO now distributes only a non-stinging variety, which we obtained from Belize about 10 years ago. If only the stinging ones are present in your area, you might wish to introduce this superior variety.]

If you request chaya from ECHO, we will send several stalks wrapped in paper; cuttings can survive for several weeks in the mail. Trim any blackened areas on the ends. Be sure to put the correct end in the ground, so the leaf scars look like smiles, not frowns. Chaya (especially a new cutting) prefers good drainage, but can survive some waterlogging. Since leaves are larger and more tender when grown in partial shade, many people like to plant chaya near a tree that provides light shade. Avoid contact with the irritating white, sticky sap when harvesting. Harvest often enough so the new shoots stay within arm's reach, or coppice the whole plant and allow for regrowth. You will quickly have sufficient stems to share.

For its great nutritional value, exceptional drought tolerance, and productivity, chaya would seem a logical choice for animal feed, in addition to its primary use as a vegetable for people. However, uncooked chaya contains hydrocyanic glucosides, which release hydrogen cyanide when eaten. The toxicity is eliminated after a few minutes of boiling. We wondered about its effect on animals, which would eat uncooked leaves.

We asked Dr. Ricardo Bressani, retired head of the Institute of Nutrition for Central America and Panama, about using dehydrated chaya leaves as a feed ingredient. "As far as I know, studies with pigs have not been conducted. Amaranth and many other leaves are used in pig feeding in many countries. Usually, leaves which are edible are consumed by pigs, but I have not seen pigs consume chaya which is often found as part of fences in rural areas, probably due to the toxins it contains. On the other hand, if it is processed and dried, it may be part of the feed, since antiphysiological factors are partially or totally destroyed. On the basis of the nutrient content of chaya leaves, it would be worth the effort to conduct more feeding trials with pigs."

Dr. Bressani directed us to the article "Chemical composition of chaya leaf meal (CLM) and availability of its amino acids to chicks" (Anim. Feed Sci. Tech., 30: 155-162). Chaya leaves were cut, air dried, and ground to produce CLM, which can be stored in air-tight containers. The study found that CLM was high in calcium, iron, and had a moderately high availability of amino acids (which make up proteins), comparable to many tropical legume leaves. Overall availability was 84%, but CLM was low in the sulfur-bearing amino acids cystine (66.7%) and methionine (69.9%).

No anti-tryptic activity was detected in the CLM. (Trypsin is an enzyme which splits proteins in the process of digestion. Many uncooked plants contain substances that inactivate this enzyme.) The samples did contain hydrocyanic glucosides and oxalates. The former may account for the low availability of sulfur-containing amino acids, because the body uses sulfur in the process of detoxifying cyanide.

Perhaps we can gain a perspective by considering another plant that has cyanide-producing substances. Cassava leaves, which also contain these glucosides, are commonly dried and stored in Brazil. Cory Thede reported on their convenient use in soups (EDN 49-6). We asked David Kennedy with Leaf for Life for his perspective on using dried cassava leaves as a food, since cassava contains substances that produce hydrocyanic acid (HCN) when fresh leaves are eaten or pulverized. "HCN is a fairly common toxin in food. Cassava, lima beans, and sprouted sorghum have caused HCN poisonings. Acute [severe, sudden onset] HCN poisoning is quite rare. The minimum lethal dose is estimated at 0.5-3.5 mg per kg of body weight. So a child weighing 20 kg would need to consume between 10 and 70 mg of HCN. Ten grams of a low-HCN variety of dried cassava leaf would contain something like 0.08 mg. Chronic toxicity (also quite rare) has been reported mainly where there is a great dependence on cassava and a very low protein intake. Damage to the nervous system and especially the optic nerve can be caused by chronic exposure to HCN. Low consumption of proteins, especially sulfur-bearing amino acids, cigarette smoking, and air pollution all intensify the body's negative reaction to HCN.

"One would be tempted to steer clear of cassava leaves altogether to avoid any toxicity problems, except that the plant has several important attributes as a leaf crop, yielding large quantities of leaf that is high in dry matter, protein, and micronutrients...throughout the year in most locations. ...People are currently eating cassava leaves as a vegetable in much of Africa, and parts of Asia, and Latin America. I think the question is not whether to eat cassava leaves, but rather how to. Encouraging the use of low-HCN varieties is critical to this effort. A grinding technique that ruptures cell walls will dramatically increase the rate and total amount of HCN that disperses into the air. It is important that the leaves be ground when fresh, and quite well pulped, not just shredded. The loss of HCN is very dramatic then during drying."

David Kennedy sent us a Ministry of Agriculture publication from Brazil which showed the following HCN content for one variety (Cigana) of cassava: fresh-737 ppm; flour from a leaf dried whole-123.89 ppm; flour from a shredded leaf-75.58 ppm; and 33.60 ppm when dried after thorough pulping (a 95% reduction). This report showed a lot of variation in HCN content based on variety and drying method (in the shade or an oven), but all varieties showed greater drops in HCN content with increased pulping. Leaves of the six varieties tested ranged from 48-123 ppm dried whole, 20-78 ppm when shredded, and 7-36 ppm when pulped.

We cannot say for certain that this data for cassava can be applied to chaya, but it may help you decide how these leaves may be used in animal feeds. We have not been able to find data on the HCN content of raw chaya [please let us know if any of the scientists in our network have tested this!]. Drying the leaves to any extent would almost certainly reduce HCN content, and cutting them first would be even better. If you decide to use significant amounts of chaya, you can be totally safe by boiling the leaves for a few minutes before feeding it to the pigs. Chaya definitely has potential as a source of cheap protein in poultry diets, although no optimal levels of inclusion are available at this point. (As a guideline, poultry specialist Dr. John Bishop recommends that a chicken's diet consist of no more than 5-10% leaf meal on a dry weight basis, since leaves are high in fiber with low digestibility.) Start with small amounts, and let ECHO know the results if you use CLM in your feed mixes. Return to Index.

Solar water disinfection

can be used to reduce bacteria counts in small volumes of drinking water at the individual household level. The simple technique of putting water in plastic bags or other containers and exposing it to the sun for 2-6 hours inactivated up to 100% of the bacteria in contaminated water. Scientists at Brace Research Institute in Quebec, Canada have been working with solar water disinfection since 1988. Several of their recent research reports are summarized below.

It was found that near ultraviolet (UV) radiation of 300- 400 nm had a bactericidal effect apart from temperature: "water temperatures from 12-43øC did not affect the inactivation of bacteria." The bactericidal effect of the radiation is affected by the turbidity of the water, the materials of the container, and the climate. Highly turbid and contaminated water is not easily disinfected by the sun, so it is best to settle and/or filter the water before putting it in the sun. On cloud cover: "The time for complete elimination of pathogenic bacteria was found to vary from 2 hours in hot arid areas to 5 hours in humid tropical regions or when clouds partly obscured the sun." "An average solar intensity of about 600 W/m2 over 4-6 hours must be maintained in order to permit the complete elimination of all bacteria in a water sample." Obviously, best results can be achieved around midday when the sun is strongest.

What is the best container to use? Many tests have been done with various materials. In general, clear containers are better than tinted ones. Transparent plastic bottles and glass jars, while they may be used, have many formulations and they can give inconsistent results and may transmit poorly in the required UV range. The two best containers were transparent plastic bags (disinfecting "to a level of zero coliforms on almost all occasions when the water was exposed for 6 hours or more") and open metal (aluminum) pans. The advantages of the pans over plastic bags are their greater capacity and durability. Containers should be capped or sealed with thin plastic wrap (usually with UV transmission levels 90%) to prevent contamination, especially in dusty areas.

For more information and publications from the Brace Research Institute, contact the Publications Department, Faculty of Engineering, P.O. Box 900, Macdonald College of McGill University, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, CANADA H9X 3V9 phone 1-514-398-7833 fax 1-514-398-7767 email AE12000@Musica.McGill.CA. Return to Index.

''Why don't my tomatoes set fruit?''

is a common question asked by gardeners from temperate climates who move to the tropics. A related question is, "Local markets only have cherry or plum type tomatoes. Can you send seed of a larger tomato?"

If you have a tomato plant that is healthy and flowering but not setting fruit, the reason is likely related to temperature. Both daytime highs and nighttime lows have a variety of effects on the ability of a tomato to set fruit. Cherry, plum, and other small tomatoes seem to be less adversely affected by these extremes, which is why those types are the ones in local markets. We had hoped to find clear-cut guidelines, but could not, so we will venture our own: If daytime temperatures are not less than 33øC (92øF) and nighttime temperatures less than 22øC (72øF), you may experience difficulty. If daytime temperatures are over 40øC (104øF) or nighttime temperatures over 26øC (79øF), you will almost surely have poor fruit set and possibly damaged fruit.

These are fine rules-of-thumb, but the reasons are too complex to be precise. Understanding some of the factors may help you find a solution.

Nighttime temperatures. These can be too low or too high. Night temperatures that do not drop to at least 26øC (78øF) are clearly damaging to fruit set. Cultivars developed for early production in temperate regions are able to also set fruit earlier-when temperatures are low, some as low as 4.4øC (40øF). On the other hand, those developed for warm climates typically will not set fruit if temperatures fall below 10øC (50øF).

Pollen grains must germinate before the ovule can be fertilized. At 25øC (77øF) germination takes about an hour; at 10øC (50øF), 5 hours; at 5øC (41øF), 21 hours. Once it germinates, the pollen tube must grow until it reaches the ovule. Growth rate increases with temperature from 10-35øC (50-95øF), but is reduced outside that range. The ovule may deteriorate before it is fertilized.

High daytime temperatures. The anther must dehisce (burst open) before pollen grains can be released. This process is inhibited by temperatures that are too high. Over 35øC (95øF), the surfaces of both the pollen grain and the stigma may dry out, causing poor fruit set. The pollen germination rate increases with temperatures up to a point, but is inhibited over 37øC (99øF).

A high of 40øC (104øF) seems to be a critical point. Exposure to temperatures greater than this can damage both ovules and pollen production. E.g., if the ovule has been exposed to very high temperatures nine days before flowering, it can deteriorate. Once fertilized, the endosperm of the developing seed can deteriorate over 40øC (104øF) for between 1-8 days after fertilization.

The difference between daytime highs and nighttime lows (diurnal variation). In regions and seasons where days are long, tomatoes are not productive unless the difference between day and night temperatures is at least 5.5 Cø (10 Fø). We have been told that a very high diurnal variation, as might occur in a desert or high in the mountains, can apparently overcome some of the above effects of high temperatures.

Fruits that do set at high temperatures are often so badly damaged or misshaped that they are not marketable. Red varieties may become more orange at higher temperatures. This is because synthesis of the red pigment, lycopene, is slowed at high temperature but the orange pigment, þ- carotene, continues to accumulate normally.

Heat-tolerant varieties have been developed which can extend the range a bit. Recent examples are 'Solar Set' and 'Heatwave' which are supposed to give improved fruit set at temperatures around 32-35øC (low 90s F). Presumably tomatoes grown under shadecloth would be a little less damaged by heat.

[References: Vegetables: Characteristics, Production and Marketing by Lincoln Peirce, Wiley & Sons, 1987; The Tomato Crop, Atherton and Rudich, Chapman & Hall, 1988; personal conversation with Dr. Don Maynard, Florida Gulf Coast Research and Education Center.] Return to Index.

Insights from a biogas project.

Technical information is often much easier to obtain than perspective on its use. Rus Alit's discussion on biogas digesters in his newsletter Appropriate Technology (vol. 6, 1995) shows the value of perspective.

Biogas is produced by placing a slurry of animal manure in a closed container. Gas bubbles to the surface and is collected for cooking or lighting. Excess water, rich in nutrients released from the decaying manure, is directed towards gardens or fish ponds. It sounds wonderful-so why do we not see these inexpensive units everywhere?

Rus faced two problems in his village in Indonesia: lack of fuel for lighting and loose pigs that destroyed gardens and spread disease. "Obtaining methane gas is usually the main attraction ... unfortunately [in most cases] there is not enough manure to run the system...." Rus says that to get enough gas for cooking and lighting for a family, we need one cow or buffalo or two mature pigs PER PERSON. So a family of five would need 10 pigs or five cows. What about using human manure? "Don't put your hope on generating much out of human excreta. It doesn't produce much gas. I ran a unit using the product of 20 orphanage children, and the gas produced hardly matches the production of gas from a couple pigs." He feels that the primary value is in using the effluent as fertilizer. [Ed: I question whether there is a linear relation between people and required manure. Surely adding one family member does not put that much more demand on the rice pot or lighting system.]

The inexpensive $70 design had a fatal flaw when a key component rusted out. But his project succeeded at his second goal. People had to fence in their pigs to collect the valuable manure. The roaming pig problem is now history. No more are the neighbors fighting each other over damage caused by the others' pigs. "Even though biogas is not operating anymore, the pig fences are there to stay." Fungal infections caused by scattered pig manure are virtually gone and tapeworms are curbed.

His newsletter, published by World Vision Australia, is available free to development workers. Each 4-page issue deals with one subject. Write Rus at 7 Bonython St., Rochedale, 4123 AUSTRALIA. Return to Index.

Malnutrition and child mortality

[Excepted from Cornell Focus, vol 5, 1996.]

According to Dr. David Pelletier with the Division of Nutritional Science at Cornell University, "More than half of all children's deaths in the Third World are due to malnutrition's interactive effects on disease. Of these deaths, more than 80% are due to mild-to-moderate, not severe, malnutrition." His research group developed a model to estimate malnutrition based on age-to-weight data. "Children with severe malnutrition have a risk of death 8.4 times higher than children who are adequately nourished. Children with moderate malnutrition have a 4.6 higher risk, and those with mild malnutrition have a 2.5 higher risk." Return to Index.

List of distance learning courses is available from ECHO.

Thanks to those who sent us information on your correspondence courses. We learned of several graduate degree programs in development as well as single courses you may take in agricultural topics. ECHO can now send (by mail or e- mail) a list of universities which offer these courses, or you can find it on our home page. Return to Index.

From ECHO's seedbank

The following plants are new to our seedbank. Trial packets are free to those ALREADY IN ECHO'S NETWORK working with small farmers overseas; others please send $2.50/packet. Tropical vegetable soybean variety trial, Glycine max: from the Asian Vegetable Research and Dev't Center, Taiwan (a May 1996 summary of their work stated that AVRDC's improved vegetable soybean varieties are planted in 93% of the total vegetable growing area in tropical Asia). Short-duration pigeon pea, Cajanus cajan: see EDN 29-4, 52-5; two new accessions from ICRISAT. Rio Grande ´Bloody Mary' red corn, Zea mays: from New Mexico, USA, grows to 2m, 1-2 ears, makes a fine flour, feed. ´Cariflora' papaya, Carica papaya: resistant to papaya ring spot virus; not a solo variety. Atemoya, Annona squamosa X A. cherimola: delicious, fast-growing fruit tree for tropical lowlands; not tolerant of waterlogging. Cherimoya, Annona cherimola: creamy Andean fruit grown as a delicacy; requiring close management (including hand pollination, careful harvesting); difficult to ship; 1500m elevation at equator (cool but not cold temperatures); 1200mm rain during growing season. Malabar spinach, Basella rubra: we have seed again of our large-leafed, vigorous variety; (mucilaginous) leaf crop suited for humid regions; easy to cultivate; requires trellis. Fodder turnips and forage kale: for cool highland regions, fast-growing short-season from Sharpes International Seeds, England. Acacia mangium: fast- growing N-fixing tree tolerates low-fertility, very acidic soils in humid tropics; used for eradication of Imperata grass; not flood tolerant. A. auriculiformis: widely adaptable to harsh sites (pH 3-9), Imperata eradication. Erythrina berteroana: leguminous shade tree suited to wide climatic range; alley cropping and windbreaks; propagate by cuttings. Caesalpinia spinosa/Coulteria tinctorea (known as "tara" in Bolivia): slow-growing, leguminous, very drought-resistant tree for high altitudes; young seeds reportedly edible by humans but mature seeds toxic; not palatable to goats. ´Lee' or American joint vetch, Aeschynomene americana: green manure, forage good for low areas or drainage ditches, 1000mm rain.

Request the following from Dr. Phillip W. Simon, Dept. of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA; fax 608/262-4743; psimon@facstaff.wisc. edu. High-carotene cucumbers, a cross of commercial US varieties and a Chinese variety yield a large proportion of yellow-orange fruits. This is a new release from the University of Wisconsin with potential to add Vitamin A to the diet. You may request a packet for trial and selection in your area from Dr. Simon (not ECHO). Return to Index.

Echoes from our network

Isabel Carter, Footsteps Editor, United Kingdom. "At ECHO's first conference, I shared a vision about the year 2000 being a year of Jubilee when the backlog of Third World debt should be cancelled as a one-off celebration of the millennium. It was following the response from the audience that I was encouraged enough to pursue this vision. A billion people in the Third World are trapped under a mountain of debt they can never pay back. Individuals can declare bankruptcy-countries cannot. Africa now spends four times more paying interest on its debts than on health care. Over half a million children die each year because of cutbacks in their health services. The poor are bearing the burden of debts incurred by previous governments or corrupt dictators. For a billion people, development is being thrown into reverse.

"Much has happened since the ECHO conference. A group of dedicated people have been meeting and planning for over a year. Countless letters, applications, and contacts have been made. In April 1996, the Jubilee 2000 office opened in Christian Aid HQ London. We now have charity status and an enthusiastic Administrator and Coordinator in place! We are encouraging 'sister' groups to establish around the world. Jubilee 2000 is an idea whose time has come, a practical solution to a problem that has been afflicting hundreds of millions of people for over fifteen years. It will only succeed with massive public support. Please join us!" For more information write Jubilee 2000, P.O. Box 100, London SE1 7RT, UK; phone +44 0171 620 4444; e-mail j2000@gn.apc.org.

Don and Nancy Richards with YWAM in Labria, Amazonas, Brazil, reported seeing very, very small fire ants which "guard" trees from leaf-cutter ants, according to farmers in the area. The fire ant nests look like thick tree bark and hang on the tree trunks. Someone collected a nest and secured it to one tree, then attached vines from that tree to neighboring fruit trees. The 15 trees connected by vines had no leaf-cutter ant damage. Some neighboring trees (not connected by vines) were completely stripped by leaf-cutter ants. This is very interesting, but we have written everything we know. Has anyone else heard of this?

Bill Lewis from Ethiopia recently visited ECHO and gave a good report on buckwheat seeds he obtained from our seedbank. When his family left Ethiopia, they left some plants nearly ready for harvest, and they were eager to see how the plant was used in their absence. He returned to Africa and sent this update: "We only had a few months to try it at about 5000 feet. We left our seed with church members when we went on furlough. We found that they love it. By adding a little wheat flour or oil they say it is as good as anything they have. I have some church property now with water available, so I will grow buckwheat continuously until the next rainy season for seed. We are really excited about the possibilities! The buckwheat here matures in 9-10 weeks and is prolific. The bees really love it. We will also be trying other things-even some of your chaya!" ECHO has buckwheat seed if you would like to try it in the highlands.

Martin Price offers this family recipe for buckwheat pancakes. Growing up in Ohio, we had buckwheat pancakes almost every morning from the time the weather cooled down in the fall until it became warm again in the spring. The reason it required cool weather is that we fermented the buckwheat on the cool porch or in the sparsely heated kitchen. To start, we mixed buckwheat 50:50 with wheat flour, then added some yeast and enough water to make a thick paste. By the next morning it had expanded to 2-3 times its original size. We then added enough water for a nice consistency for pouring pancakes. We never liked it the first morning, but ate it anyway. That night we added more of the buckwheat/wheat flour mix (but no more yeast) and the process was repeated. After the third day, the pancakes were absolutely delicious and gave a wonderful aroma when cooking. Buckwheat pancakes from a mix (not fermented) do not compare to how good the sourdough approach can be. It is like a totally different food, and it is very filling. Return to Index.

Upcoming events

ECHO's Agricultural Missions Conference (Nov 12-14, 1996): a registration form for the conference and the aquaculture conference immediately following is enclosed with this issue. We hope to see you here! Aquaculture Workshop (Nov 15-16, also at ECHO) is an introduction to technological levels and appropriate role of aquaculture in farming systems, pond site selection and management, fish biology, project planning, and specific small group discussion times. Price for overseas members of ECHO's network is US$25; $90 for others.

´Course Design and Delivery' Workshops for Trainers in Sustainable Agriculture to be held in Kitwe, ZAMBIA (2-20 Sept 1996) and Arusha, TANZANIA (27 Oct-15 Nov 1996). The yearly practice-oriented workshops cover course design, training materials development, and facilitation and information sifting skills. The courses are sponsored by the PELUM Association (participatory ecological land-use management), which works throughout east and southern Africa to promote sustainable resource use. Write: Workshop Coordinator, PELUM Association, PO Box CY 301, Harare, ZIMBABWE; fax 263-4- 744470. (In Zambia, also contact Chileshe Chilangwa, Harvest Help, Box 36548, Lusaka; in Tanzania, Cleophas Rwechungura, TOPP, Box 9421, Dar es Salaam.)

Agroforestry Short Course, 30 Sept.-14 Dec. 1996, œ3500 plus living expenses (about œ1200). These courses are designed for master's-level professionals who want to learn about recent advances in agroforestry. Subjects include: Systems and practices, Measurement and modelling of ecophysiological interactions, Multipurpose tree species, Applied sociology in project design, and resource economics. Write Dr. R.M. Brook, Short Course Coordinator, School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK; fax (01248) 354997; e-mail r.m.brook@ bangor.ac.uk. Individualized training in agroforestry may also be available at the university (œ1400/month).

"Forestry for Sustainable Development" will be the theme of the next World Forestry Congress, to be held in Antalya, Turkey, on 13-22 October 1997. A huge spectrum of topics will be addressed in the technical program. They expect people of all backgrounds and experience to attend. Contact Mr. Mesut Kamiloglu, Secretary-General, XI World Forestry Congress, Ministry of Forestry, Ataturk Bulvari 153, Ankara, TURKEY; fax 90.312.4179160; e-mail obdi-f@servis.net.tr or luis.botero@fao.org. Return to Index.

Books and other resources

The Tropical Perennial Vegetable Series by Jay Ram and Nancy Glover features plants especially suited to lowland, moist conditions. Perennial vegetables require less care than annuals, and they provide a regular source of nutritious greens for home use; some also have commercial potential. This practical series gives the botany, ecology, uses and preparation, nutritional value, cultivation and management, propagation, pests and diseases, limitations, and sources for the vegetables. Even people already quite familiar with the vegetables will find the information useful. ECHO distributes seed or cuttings of many of the species. We recently found that even some of the more succulent plants can survive at least three weeks in the mail if old stem cuttings are taken.

The ten plants covered are chayote, perennial cucumber (ivy gourd), tree kale, sissoo spinach, katuk, moringa, okinawan spinach, celery stem taro, tropical lettuce, and chaya. These include several of the most promising and productive tropical vegetables, deserving a space in home gardens. The set of leaflets (36 pp. total) is available from ECHO: US$5.50 in N Amer; $6.50 in C/S Amer; $7.50 elsewhere.

Urban Agriculture: Food, Jobs, and Sustainable Cities (328 pp., from the Urban Agriculture Network and the United Nations Development Programme) examines factors which influence urban food production systems worldwide. This is the most comprehensive resource we have seen on this topic. One of the authors set out to promote urban farming, but soon realized that documenting existing activities would be a major task in itself. The book is researched thoroughly, includes many case studies and pictures, and gives great perspectives on the current status and potential of food and income production in the city. Topics include: history of urban agriculture (UA), different classes of urban farmers, spaces used for UA, organizations which influence UA, benefits, problems, constraints, and promoting urban agriculture through policy.

Here are a few of the insights excerpted from the book to give you an idea for the variety of its content. As an operational rule of thumb, "urban" is distinguished here as the agricultural product that gets to city markets or consumers the same day it is harvested. By the year 2000, 57% of the poor in developing countries will live in urban areas, up from about 33% in 1988. As many as 80% of the families in some smaller Asian and Siberian cities are engaged in agriculture. Hong Kong, the densest large city in the world, may produce within its boundaries two thirds of the poultry and close to half of the vegetables eaten by its citizens. Singapore is fully self- reliant in meat production. Recent migrants to the city have a difficult time putting together the resources necessary to grow and market their produce; they need time to adapt rural technologies to their new urban environment. The book is available from the Urban Agriculture network (see below) or UNDP, Urban Development Unit, DC1-2080, One United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA; fax 212/906-6471.

The Urban Agriculture Network has been active since 1992, and now has 3000 members in 40 (primarily developing) countries. Network staff wrote the above book. They have an information and technical referral service on UA, assist networking among groups who work in adjacent countries, sponsor regional workshops and newsletters, advise on UA policy, and support research of people doing graduate degrees related to UA. They have an extensive library in Washington, D.C., which network members may use during a visit. Contact Jac Smit (President) at 1711 Lamont St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20010, USA; phone 202/483-8130; fax 202/986-6732; e- mail 72144.3446@compuserve.com; https://www.cityfarmer.org.

Root Crops (380 pp.) by Daisy Kay is a handbook on 42 species. While ECHO's tropical root crop video (EDN 52-7) covers the major crops, this book also includes those of local importance. The cultivation conditions and planting procedures, details of harvesting, and descriptions of the products and processing are particularly helpful if the crops are new to your area. Nine species of yam (Dioscorea spp.) are individually described, along with many native Andean and Asian plants. The book costs œ15 including surface postage; make check payable to CAB International and send the order to Publications Distribution Office, NRI, Central Ave, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK. Ask for their excellent catalog if you have not seen it. NOTE: No charge is made for single copies of publications requested by government, educational, research, or non-profit organizations in countries eligible for British aid. Use your official title when writing.

Re-Entry: Making the Transition from Missions to Life at Home (150 pp.) by Peter Jordan, YWAM, 1992. Many of you in our network are missionaries. Hopefully you feel professionally fulfilled, life is interesting and full of meaning because of the important work you are doing, you are respected in the community, and in some cases you have never felt so close to God because of the marvelous things you see Him doing and the close fellowship with national workers and other missionaries.

When the day comes to leave this work and return to your home country, the re-entry can be devastating. Preparing for re-entry is a neglected area that I am convinced, after reading this book, should be given very serious attention by anyone about to return home. The author and his wife head YWAM Associates International, a ministry to the alumni of Youth With A Mission. This group involves large numbers of short-term missionaries, so they have had a lot of experience watching re-entries and the problems that can develop. They suggest things to evaluate in your situation, things to avoid, and steps to take. A few excerpts give the "flavor" of the book.

"Closure is the art of bringing to a satisfactory conclusion the passage of life through which we have just passed ... without carrying burdens of guilt or false expectations. [Failure to bring closure] means you will never truly leave the mission field behind ... it will thwart a positive re- entry experience...." "Instead of focusing on having to leave work unfinished, focus on whether it is God's will for you to leave."

Be sure conflict with fellow workers is not the reason you are leaving. "It is not necessarily wrong to be disappointed when expectations are not met. But it is wrong to let that ... fester into bitterness. ...it will be a stumbling block the rest of your life." "Set aside some time to assess what changes have occurred in your life during your absence from home. ...How do you think people back home are going to react to these changes in you?" "One change you will probably notice is much greater understanding and acceptance of people from other races and ethnic groups. ...it is easy to anticipate that there may be some conflicts back home ...."

Often missionaries have worked with Christians of many different doctrines and become more responsive to and accepting of other doctrinal points of view. "If you go home seeking to change the convictions of people in your church, you are likely to meet with a negative, even hostile response. So be wise in how you share things." "You may well have to overcome your own jealousy" as friends back home have prospered financially while you seem to have gone backward."

"One young lady wanted to speak in front of her whole church, but realized that the pastor was not comfortable [with this]." She sent him a "list of questions he might like to ask her in an interview, with a brief idea of the answers she would give. This worked out wonderfully."

The 150-page book sells for US$8. (The publisher is giving a quantity discount-$3.50; $2.80 if over 60-to mission agencies who order before Sept. 1, 1996.) For individual missionaries, the price of one copy will be $5 if you mention ECHO on your order, plus postage (for 1-2 books): N. Amer. $3; overseas surface $6/airmail $11. Make checks out to "YWAM Associates" and send to Peter Jordan at P.O. Box 2060, Point Roberts, WA 98281, USA; phone 604/274-9926; fax 604/271-5000; e- mail 103005,3043@compuserve.com.

Animal Traction training videos by Palabana in Zambia give a high-quality, thorough introduction to the use of oxen in draft power. There are six sections (about 20 minutes each): Training and Selection of Draft Animals (breaking, training exercises, general commands); Yoke making (detailed measurements and procedures); Riem, stroop, and halter making (clear close-ups demonstration using local materials); Plowing and weeding (furrow- making. Groups working in Africa should contact them first with details of their work; some discounts may be available.

If you work with animal traction, you should also know about Tillers International. Write for information on their courses and newsletter at 5239 South 24th St., Kalamazoo, MI 49002, USA; phone 616/344-3233; fax 616/385-2329.

THIS ISSUE is copyrighted 1996. Subscriptions are $10 per year ($5 for students). Persons working with small farmers or urban gardeners in the third world should request an application for a free subscription. Issues #1-51 (revised) are available in book form as Amaranth to Zai Holes: Ideas for Growing Food Under Difficult Conditions. Cost is US$29.95 plus postage; there is a discount for missionaries and development workers in developing countries (see page 1 of this issue). ECHO is a non-profit, Christian organization that helps you help the poor in the third world to grow food. Return to Index.

ECHO DEVELOPMENT NOTES - ISSUE # 53
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