Noog abyssinia

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I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME

NOOG ABYSSINIA

BOTANICAL NAME

Guizotia abyssinica

FAMILY

Compositae

OTHER NAMES

Ramtil (Hind)), kalatil, sarguia, tilangi, karala (India), neuk, noog, nug (Ethiopia), niger

CULTIVATION CONDITIONS

Niger is of African origin and occurs from Ethiopia to Malawi. It has been extensively introduced to India.

The species is a short day, temperate region plant which has been adapted to a semi-tropical environment, particularly at high altitudes. It grows well on poor soils and has good resistance to waterlogging (Weiss).

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

ETHIOPIA, INDIA, Pakistan, Bangladesh, South Africa, Zaire, West Indies

It is estimated that Ethiopia produces 101 600 - 203 200 tonnes of Niger per annum, whilst India produces 762 000 tonnes/annum (Purseglove).

DESCRIPTION AND YIELD

Niger is a stout, erect annual herb about 1 metre high with yellow flowers that produce the oil bearing seed. In plantations it is estimated that yields are about 400-450 kg/ha. The oil content of the seed varies greatly between 25% and 45% for unimproved varieties and 50% to 60% for improved strains.

Each plant will yield between 15-30 mature seeds per head (Weiss). The black glossy seeds are small; 1000 weighing 5-7 g.

MAIN USES

The main use is for the extraction of an edible oil: in India often as an extender for Sesame seed oil. It also find use for making soap and as an illuminant. The remaining plant matter is often used as a green manure (Weiss).

II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

In India the crop is grown either from seed mixed with finger millet, or as a pure stand. It is mostly broadcast sown (Weiss).

In India the varieties Oota Cammund 1GP- 76 and N5 are used in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa states (Kaul).

In Ethiopia, the crop is sown to avoid frost. In Mysore, India, it is sown between July and August after heavy rains (Weiss).

The list below is a summary of a detailed investigation of pests which attack Niger. It gives the botanical and common name of the pest along with the region where it is most commonly found (Weiss).

Acherontia atropes - Hawk moth, India.

Calidea dregii - Shield bug, Africa.

Chrontononus spp - Grasshopper, Asia.

Cyrtancanthacris tatarica - Grasshopper, Africa.

Diacrisia obligua - Hairy caterpilla, India.

Diacrisia sorocula - Fruit fly, Africa.

Frankliniella schultzei - Thrips, East Africa.

Heliothis spp - Bullworm, Cosmopolitan.

Larinus spp - Weevil, East Africa.

Macrosiphum spp - Aphis, Cosmopolitan.

Melanagromyza spp - Stem borer, Africa.

Nezara viridula - Shield bug, Africa.

Perigea capensis - Safflower caterpilla, India.

Sphaerocoris annulus - Stink bug, East Africa.

Spodoptera spp - Leafworms, Widespread.

Noted diseases include: leaf spots caused by Cercospora spp and Altemaria spp in Africa and in India; Bacterial blight due to Pseudomonas spp in India; Powdery mildew caused by Sphaerotheca spp in India (Weiss).

HARVESTING PERIOD

Harvesting begins about 4-4.5 months after sowing. The correct harvesting time should be accurate to avoid yield losses which result from the shedding of ripe seeds. (Weiss, Kaul)

HARVESTING METHODS

The crop is cut with a sickle and is usually cut in the morning when humidity is relatively high (Weiss).

III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT: PRESERVATION. STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

The crops are dried in the sun for 2-3 days, bundled, and taken to the yard or are threshed in the field (Kaul). The seeds are removed by threshing. The simplest method is by hand which does little damage to the seed, but is time consuming. In Ethiopia, oxen are sometimes used to tread out the seeds or to pull small threshing sledges. Small pedal operated threshers, similar to those used in S.E. Asia for rice, are also used (Weiss).

After threshing, the seeds are cleaned by winnowing and sieving. The seed is sometimes dusted with insecticide prior to storage (Weiss).

Clean Niger seed can easily be stored in 200 litre oil drums fitted with lids (Weiss).

IV. OIL EXTRACTION

The oil is most commonly extracted with expellers in India while in Bangladesh ghanis are more commonly used. The expressed oil is pale yellow, odourless and has a nutty taste. Due to the high linoleic acid content it has poor keeping properties. (Kaul, Weiss).

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

(Source: Hilditch)

EQUIPMENT

Small threshers, winnowers and sieves. The main types of equipment used for extracting oil are: Ghanis, expellers and hydraulic presses. An improved one bullock ghani designed by the All India

Village Industries Association can extract about 25 - 27 kg oil/day and produce 65 - 68 kg of oilcake (Charan).

There is a lack of identifiable information for the following areas: PROCESSING AND OIL EXTRACTION, nomenclature of products.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BERNARDI, E. "Oilseeds, Oils and Fats - Volume II, Oils and Fat" Processing", 2nd Edition, Interstampa, Rome, 1985.

CHARAN, V. M. "Niger and Safflower", Indian Oilseeds Committee, 1961.

GIBBON, D. PAIN, A. "Crops of the Drier Regions of the Tropics", Intermediate Tropical Agricultural Series, Longman Singapore Publications (Pte) Ltd. 1985.

KAUL, A. K. DAS, M. L. "Oilseeds in Bangladesh", pp.135-142, Bangladesh-Canada Agricultural Sector Team, Ministry of Agriculture Bangladesh, 1986.

PURSEGLOVE, P.J. "Tropical Crops: Dicotyledons", pp.65-66, Longman, 1987.

WEISS, E. A. "Oilseed Crops", pp.486-508, Longman, 1983.

Nutmeg

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME

NUTMEG

BOTANICAL NAME

Myristica fragrens

FAMILY

Myristicaceae

OTHER NAMES

Oil of Mace

HABITAT

Grows well on rich volcanic soils in hot humid tropics at altitudes up to 1500 feet.

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Indonesia, Grenada

YIELD AND DESCRIPTION

The nutmeg tree grows to a height of 50-60 feet and produces globular to pear shaped fruits. Two distinct types are recognised, E.Indian and W. Indian. Seeding trees begin to bear fruit when 5-8 years old, attaining full production at 15-20 years and continuing to bear fruit until 30-40 years old. A tree may produce 15002000 fruits and yields per acre vary from 500-1000 lbs of nutmegs and 100-200 lbs of mace. (Purseglove).

When the fruit ripens it splits open revealing the crimson aril, which surrounds the nut. When the nuts are harvested this aril, which is the spice mace, is carefully removed. The nuts contain 24-30% oil which includes essential oil. (Ecky).

Nutmeg butter contains about 73% of trimyristin and 13% essential oil. Volatile nutmeg oil comprises 7-12% of the seed and contains about 4% myristicin (Purseglove).

MAIN USES

Nutmegs yield a number of products. The red aril mace and the nutmeg are used widely as a food flavouring. Essential oil of nutmeg is distilled from reject, usually infested, material and finds use in the food , pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. The pulpy outer husk or pericarp is made into sweetmeats and jellies. Nutmegs also yield a fixed oil nutmeg butter which is used in ointments and perfumery (Purseglove). Both butter and oil contain myristicin which is narcotic and toxic. Nutmegs must thus be used sparingly, 4-5g produce symptoms of poisoning in man. (2) An integrated utilisation method for reject nutmegs has been proposed (private communication) involving distillation of the essential oil, extraction and refining of the butter followed by hydrolysis of the main component tri-myristin and conversion of the myristic acid to iso-propylmyristin which is used in a number of cosmetic preparations. The main problem appears to lie in the production of a butter free of nutmeg odour.

II AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

Cultivation is mainly restricted to islands. The tree cannot tolerate waterlogging. Nutmegs are normally propagated by seed and transplanted to the field when about 6 months old. After removal of excess male trees an irregular spacing of about 40 feet is achieved (Purseglove).

HARVESTING PERIOD

There are two peaks of harvest each year although some fruits are ripening all the time (Purseglove).

HARVESTING METHODS

Usually harvested from the ground as the fruits fall from the trees.

III. POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PROCESSING, STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

IV. PROCESSING

After harvest the mace is removed and the nutmegs carefully shade dried. Second grade infested nuts are separated by floatation in water. Sound nutmegs are then size graded.

OIL EXTRACTION

Traditionally nutmeg butter is extracted by hot manual pressing, usually from reject material.

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

(Ecky)

EQUIPMENT

Presses

There is a lack of identifiable information on nutmeg oil extraction, utilisation and integrated nutmeg processing systems.

NOMENCLATURE OF PRODUCTS

Nutmegs, Mace, Essential oil of nutmeg, Nutmeg butter, nutmeg jelly.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ECKEY, E.W., Vegetable Fats and Oils, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1954. p 407-412

PURSEGLOVE, J.W. Tropical Crops: Monocotyledons, Longman, 1985. p391-397

Perilla

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME

Perilla

BOTANICAL NAME

Perilla frutescens

FAMILY

Labiatae

OTHER NAMES

Su-tzu (China), Green Perilla

CULTIVATION CONDITIONS

The crop is annual and is native to India and China (Godin).

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

CHINA, INDIA, Japan, Korea

DESCRIPTION AND YIELD

Perilla seeds are small end globular weighing about 4 g per 1000. They contain 30-51% oil (Ecky).

MAIN USES

The seed is processed in the country of origin as an edible food oil. It is exported to the USA and used as a substitute for linseed oil in paint manufacture.

II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

The crop is grown from seed. In China the crop is sown in May.

HARVESTING PERIOD

Harvesting is usually between the end of September and the beginning of October.

HARVESTING METHOD

The seeds do not all ripen at the same time, and those that ripen early tend to shed. When the majority of the fruits are mature the plants are cut.

III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT: PRESERVATION. STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

After harvesting the plants are either bundled or spread on the ground to dry. (Godin). When the bundles have been dried they are placed on level ground and threshed.

IV. PROCESSING

The seeds are crushed using a stone roller and the shell manually winnowed off (Godin).

BY-PRODUCTS

The seed cake produced can be used as an animal feed.

V. MAJOR FATTY ACIDS OF OIL

(Source: Hilditch 1964)

There is no identifiable information for the following areas: GENERAL, production; AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS, varieties, major pests and diseases; POST HARVEST, pretreatment, storage methods and equipment; OIL EXTRACTION, processing methods, nomenclature of products, by products and equipment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ECKY, E. W. "Vegetable Fats and Oils", pp.731-733, Reinhold Publishing Corp, 1954.

GODIN, N. J. SPENSLEY, P. C. "Oils and Oilseeds", pp.7-104-105, Crop and Product Digests No.1. Tropical Products Institute, 1971.

VAUGHAN, J. G. "The Structure and Utilisation of Oilseeds", Chapman and Hall, 1976.

Pili nut

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME

Pili Nut

BOTANICAL NAME

Canarium ovatum

FAMILY

Burseraceae

OTHER NAMES

Anangi (Philippines)

CULTIVATION CONDITIONS

The crop is tropical and is found mainly growing in the warm, low elevated regions of the Philippines. It requires abundant rainfall and cannot tolerate frost (Martin, Private communication).

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

PHILIPPINES

DESCRIPTION AND YIELD

The tree begins to bear fruits ready for harvest when it is between 7-10 years old. Yields are not well reported but it is estimated that 33 kg nuts/tree can be harvested. The Pilli fruit is 6-7 cm long with a thin oily pulp containing one triangular seed. The seed or nut has a hard shell inside which is the oil bearing kernel. The kernels have a very high fat content of 71% (Martin).

MAIN USES

The pulp is edible and is consumed by local populations. An edible oil is also produced which is used for cooking. The oil is also used locally for burning in lamps (Martin, Rosengarten). The shell finds use as a fuel for many small industries (Private communication).

II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

Most trees occur naturally although some have been planted near to coconut plantations (Rosengarten).

HARVESTING METHODS

The fruits are knocked or shaken from the tree and then gathered from the ground (Rosengarten).

III. PROCESSING

No information identified on processing and oil extraction. There is no identifiable information for the following areas: GENERAL, production; AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS, varieties, planting period, major pests and diseases; POSTHARVEST TREATMENT, PROCESSING AND OIL EXTRACTION, processing methods, oil composition, nomenclature of products, by products and equipment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MARTIN, W. "Handbook of Tropical Crops", pp.245-246, CRC Press, Florida, 1984.

MERRINGER, E. A. "Edible Nuts of the World", Horticultural Books, 1977.

ROSENGARTEN, F. "The Book of Edible Nuts", Walker and Co, New York, 1984.

Private communication. ITDG, UK.

Rice bran

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME OF THE OIL

Rice Bran Oil

BOTANICAL NAME

Oryza sativa

FAMILY

Graminaceae

OTHER NAMES OF THE OIL

Aceite de Salvado de arroz, Riz, Huile de sonde, Riso, Olio di crusca

HABITAT

Tropical

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Asia, Africa, Americas

YIELD AND DESCRIPTION

Rice bran is a by product of the pearling process of rice and comprises the pericarp, aleurone layer, embryo and some endosperm. The bran forms about 8% of milled rice and contains 15-20% oil, 0.4-1.5% wax, 5-8% protein, 40-50% soluble carbohydrates and 5-8% fibre (Godin). Refined low acid rice bran oil is pale yellow in colour and very similar to corn and cottonseed oil. As the FFA content increases so does the oil colour, high acidity oil being brown.

Rice bran contains a powerful lipolytic enzyme system which causes a rapid release of free fatty acids (FFA), up to 30% of the oil being converted to FFA in one week under tropical storage conditions. Freshly milled bran has a FFA of 3%. Oil with more than 10% FFA cannot be economically refined. A major constraint to rice bran oil extraction in developing countries is the practice of one stage milling which results in a mixture of hulls and bran with an oil content too low for economic oil extraction. The use of two stage mills provides a bran with an economic oil content. It has been estimated that 700 000 t per year of rice bran oil could be extracted from the 20% world paddy production currently processed in two stage mills (Enochian.)

The bran from parboiled rice is more stable to FFA development. Well processed parboiled rice bran can be stored for up to 6 months with little deterioration. Existing parboiling techniques, however, are directed to improving rice quality rather than bran quality. Optimum parboiling conditions have been established as 48 hrs steeping, 12 mins. steaming at 60 psig steam and drying to 12% moisture (U Myint).

Rice bran oil production was 110,000 t in India in 1979 but there is increasing interest in overcoming the production problems of edible rice bran oil to meet shortfalls in national oil needs (Pillaiyar). India's production of refined, food grade oil was a meagre 5000 t. Japan, with only 20% of India's production of paddy, produced 90,000 t. Of oil, of which 55,000 to 60,000 t was used for edible purposes (Pillaiyar). A pilot rice bran oil refinery has been established in the Philippines (Anon).

MAIN USES

Refined rice bran oil is a high quality cooking oil and finds uses in many manufactured foodstuffs. It has been used as a carrier for insecticides, after sulphonation in textile and leather treatments, and for a range of industrial purposes. Crude rice bran oil, which is not economically refinable, is mainly used in soap manufacture and for the production of industrial fatty acids (Godin). Its use, after de-waxing, to replace oleic acid as a cheap anti-foamer for chemical industries has also been investigated (Zanati).

Extracted rice bran, which contains 1-3% residual oil is a good cattle feed and also finds use in human foods, as a soil conditioner and in pharmaceuticals.

Rice bran oil milk is used in the production of bean paste and soy sauce due to its high amylase content (Anon).

Rice sugar is a residue of alcoholic oil extraction and finds use in pharmaceutical industries. Another by-product, rice wax can replace carnauba wax in polishes, carbon paper and other products.

II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

The agricultural aspects of rice production are covered in the relevant literature.

III. POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PROCESSING. STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

The lipolytic enzymes in rice bran can be inactivated by heating, the time and temperature required depending on the bran moisture content (at 30% moisture, 90-100 C for 5-10 mins; at 10% moisture 130-140 C for seconds) (Enochian). In recent years much work has been carried out on rice bran stabilisation by heating, particularly in the area of small extrusion cookers that could be linked into small rice mills. It has been estimated that an extrusion cooker costing $6200 (1981 prices) would yield an annual return of 50% on the capital investment by producing 200-300 t of stabilised rice bran/annum (Enochian).

Extrusion equipment is currently being installed by many large rice milling companies in the USA and has also been installed at several locations in India.

Rice bran can also be stabilised by treatment with hydrochloric acid and it is reported that this technique is now being evaluated in Indian mills (Personal communication).

Rice bran may be subjected to a cooking process to eliminate very fine particles prior to extraction.

IV. PROCESSING

OIL EXTRACTION

Solvent extraction is used. Hexane and isopropanol are good solvents. If alcohol is used as a solvent rice sugar is produced as a by-product. Oil expellers have been examined (Yokochi).

After extraction crude rice bran oil is filtered at room temperature to remove solids and high melting point waxes and then treated with a small amount (0.1-0.6%) of phosphoric acid to remove gums. It is then alkali refined to remove FFAs, washed and any moisture removed in a vacuum drier. The refined oil is then decolorized and filtered, deodorized and winterized to remove high melting point waxes (U Myint).

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

(Godin)

EQUIPMENT

Extrusion cookers, Driers, Solvent extraction plant, filters, refining equipment

NOMENCLATURE OF PRODUCTS

Rice sugar, Rice wax, Oil cake, Oil.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANON. ASEAN Food Handling Newsletter, No.18, 10-11, 1985.

ANON. "Pilot Rice Bran Oil Refinery at Tacurong, Philippines.", ASEAN Food Handling Newsletter, 1985, (18), p.10-11

ENOCHIAN R.V., SAUNDERS R.M., SCHULTZ E.G., BEAGLE E.C., CROWLEY P.R., "Stabilization of Rice Bran with Extruder Cookers and Recovery of Edible Oil: A Preliminary Analysis of Operational and Financial Feasibility", USDA Marketing Research Report No. 1120, 1981.

GODIN V.J., SPENSLEY P.C., Oils and Oilseeds, Crop and Product Digests No.1, Tropical Products Institute, 1971. p122-125

NARAHARI RAO B.S, GOPINATH M.V, VASU B. SEETHARAM G. SANGAMMESWARAN S.V, "Rice Bran and Rice Bran Oil, an annotated bibliography 19701980", CFTRI, 1983.

NASIRULLAH, KRISTNAMURPHY, M.N, NAGARAJA, K.V. "Effect of Stabilisation on the Quality Characteristics of Rice Bran Oil", J.Amer.Oil Chemists 'Soc., 1989, Vol 66, No.5, p. 661-6636.

Personal communication. P.Fellows after visit to CFTRI, Mysore, India. 1990.

PILLAIYAR, P. et al," Rice Bran Oil: status and prospects", Pub. by Solvent Extractors of India, 225 Nariman Point, Bombay. 1984, 151pp.

PILLAIYAR, P."Problems Facing Rice Bran Oil Extraction in India", Oils and Oilseeds Journal, 1980, Vol. 32 (4), p.16-18

SAYRE, R, SAUNDERS, R. " Rice Bran and Rice Bran Oil", Lipid Technology, 1990, Vol 2, No 3, p 72-76.

U MYINT P.E, "The Rice Bran Oil Refining Technology", UNIDO, 1987.

YOKOCHI K., "Studies on new methods of rice bran oil extraction with special new type of oil expeller", Rice Report, 1976.

ZANATI,E.M, ZAHER, F.A. "Utilization of Rice Bran Oil to produce an Antifoamer", J.American Oil Chemists' Soc., 1990, Vol 67, No 1, p 61-63

Sacha inche

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME

Sacha Inche

BOTANICAL NAME

Plukenetia volubilis, Tetracapidium conophorum

FAMILY

Euphorbiaceae

OTHER NAMES

Inca peanut, N'gart

HABITAT

Highland tropical jungles,

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

West Africa, Central and S. America.

YIELD AND DESCRIPTION

The Inca peanut is a legume with branched nitrogen fixing root nodules. The white flowers develop into 4 pods, each with 4 seeds. The pods sun dry on the vine. The seeds or nuts are flattened spheres about the size of a penny (Personal communication). The individual seeds weigh 6.6g and the kernels make up 63% of the seed weight. The seeds contain a heat labile substance which gives them a bitter taste if not roasted. The oil content is 35-60% of which 70% is unsaturated.

The rather viscous oil is yellow to orange in colour. The oil is mainly interesting for its drying properties and has been considered to have potential for the manufacture of paints, varnishes and linoleum (Mensier).

The cake, after oil extraction, has a good quality protein content of some 45-60% and finds use in animal feeds.

Yields are estimated at 2 tons of seed/ Ha. Sacha Inche is closely related to the African oilseed Cumbaza.

MAIN USES

The Inca peanut has been used traditionally by the Chancas Indians of Peru as a food and in Africa the oil is traditionally extracted for food use. In Peru the crop is being promoted for edible oil extraction and the oilcake as an animal feed.

II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS CULTIVATION

No information identified

HARVESTING PERIOD

No information identified

HARVESTING METHODS

Hand harvesting

III. POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PROCESSING, STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

Seeds are removed from pods and dried

IV. PROCESSING OIL EXTRACTION

No information identified

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

(Personal communication)

EQUIPMENT

NOMENCLATURE OF PRODUCTS

There is a lack of identifiable information on cultivation, oil extraction and uses of Inca Peanut.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MENSIER. P.H., " Dictionaire des Huiles Vegetales". Editions Paul Lechevalier, Paris.

Personal communication. P. Valdivia. San Marcos Veterinary School, Lima Peru.

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