Annex 5.2

TABLES ON DETAILS OF RICE POSTHARVEST PESTS

Table 5.2.1. Life history, distribution, infestation and main control of major insect pest species in rice postharvest.

Pest species	Distribution	Postharvest conditions	Stage/time of infestation	Main control	Loss status
Rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera) Life size, 2.5-4.5 mm Longevity, 4-5 months, some more than 1 year Eggs, 300 - 500 Development completed, 4 weeks Temperature, adults die in 3.5 hours at 47oC;	Worldwide	Optimum for insect development is brown rice m.c., 18%; temperature, 30oC; minimum limit for growth, 14oC		Parasitoid - Anisopteroma-lus calandrae Drying	One of the most destructive pests causing substantial weight loss
Lesser grain borer, Rhizopertha dominica (Coleoptera) Life size - 2-3 mm Eggs - 200-500, single or in 30-egg clusters Life cycle - 33 days at 30oC; Life span - 6 months Generations - 2 in temperate; 5 in tropical countries	Cosmopolitan insect; one of most destructive insects in tropical and subtropical regions	Eats mainly grain kernels but can also develop in milled rice Temperature, can breed at 37.8oC; Development completed inside kernel or in grain dust	Adult; larva will feed on ground grain produced by adult ; sometimes will bore directly into the kernel	Parasitoid - Anisopteroma-lus calandrae

Table 5.2.1. Life history, distribution, infestation and main control of major insect pest species in rice postharvest (continued).

Pest species	Distribution	Postharvest conditions	Stage/time of infestation	n control
Rust red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum (Coleoptera); Secondary pest Life size - 2.5-4.5 mm Longevity - 6 months; some >1year Development - 7 weeks to 3 months	Worldwide	Flour and bran; T. castaneum in warm and T confusum in cool climate, temperature limits, 18-33oC	A secondary pest acting on damaged product by grinding, milling, handling and action of primary pests	Most destructive insect pests of milled products such as flour and bran
Saw-toothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus spp.; O. surinamensis (Coleoptera); Secondary pest; Life size, 2.5-3.5 mm Life cycle, 25-28 days Eggs - 45-285 Life span - 6-10 months; some up to 3 years Generations - 7/yr	Worldwide	Damaged grain; optimum development at 30oC and 70% RH	A secondary pest acting on damaged product by grinding, milling, handling and action of primary pests

Table 5.2.1. Life history, distribution, infestation and main control of major insect pest species in rice postharvest (continued).

Pest species	Distribution	Postharvest conditions	Stage/time of infestation	Main control	Loss status
Tropical warehouse moth, Ephestia cautella (Lepidoptera) Secondary pest Wing span, 11-28 mm Longevity - 5 days Eggs - 90-190	Widespread in tropical and subtropical regions	Damaged or processed grains	Secondary pest acting on damaged product by grinding, milling, handling and action of primary pests
Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium (Coleoptera) Life size - 2-3 mm oblong-oval Life cycle - 4-6 weeks to several years Eggs - 30-100 Generations - 4-5 per year in tropics, 2 per year in temperate countries	Tropical regions, 4-5 generations/year; temperate, 1-2 generations/year	Max. 40oC, larvae can develop at 10oC; adults resistant to low moisture conditions, can breed in grain <2% moisture content Larvae tolerant tp food deficiencies and can survive at 10oC for 3 days
Rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica (Lepidoptera) Secondary pest			Larval stage

Table 5.2.1. Life history, distribution, infestation and main control of major rodent pest species in rice postharvest (continued).

Pest species	Distribution	Postharvest conditions	Stage/time of infestation	Main control
Rodents Norway rat, Rattus norvegicus Tend to burrow under secure coverings, concrete or rock piles; habitat: spaces between floors and walls, near water and long ditches and streams.	Worldwide;origin - temperate countries but has moved worldwide; adapted to different habitats and environments	Attacks both standing and stacked harvested grains in the field; infest accessible stored rice.	Whenever grain is stored.	L-shaped wall discourages rat to circumvent an obstruction at foundation level after meeting a wall after digging. Can jump 77 cm vertical and 1.2 m horizontally from a standstill. Cats and dogs Owls Trapping Sealing entry points
Roof rat, Rattus rattus Excellent climber; lives in small colonies; inhabits warehouses, restaurants, large food stalls, poultry houses, and residential buildings.	Worldwide;	Accessible grains are vulnerable.	Whenever grain is stored	Cats and dogs Owls Trapping Sealing entry points
House mouse, Mus musculus	Worldwide in cereal growing areas; Has hoarding habit	Accessible grains are vulnerable.	Whenever grain is stored	Ditto

Table 5.2.1. Life history, distribution, infestation and main control of major bird pest species in rice postharvest .

Pest species	Distribution	Postharvest conditions	Stage/time of infestation	Main control
Birds House sparrow - Passer montanus; Lays an average of 6 eggs in 6 days; incubation is 10 days and birdlings are ready to fly in 17-19 days after hatching.	Origin- Taiwan	Grains in store whether in sacks or in bulk are vulnerable to bird infestation if left unprotected.	Ripening rice crop, threshing and sun drying of the grains; careless handling of grains in and around stores attract birds which feed on residues around mills and processing plants and spillage. Once residence is established in a warehouse or building, they multiply rapidly especially if food is abundant. They peck sacks, eat grains and cause spillage and collapsing of stacks under severe cases of infestation in a warehouse or rice mill. Indirectly, they cause wetting damage to stored grains because nests built on gutters block the water flow. Their droppings, feathers and dead bodies contaminate foodstuffs, packaging and handling facilities. Droppings get infected by poisonous bacteria, (Salmonella) and disease-causing fungi.	Bird-proofing using nets or wire screens on eaves, air vents and windows. Catching adults with mist nets, traps and foot glue , collecting eggs and deserting nests are most effective methods. Doorways could be provided with hanging plastic strips which deter birds but do not restrict entry and exit of personnel, vehicles and commodities. Sanitation of premises.

Table 5.2.1. Life history, distribution, infestation and main control of major fungus pest species in rice postharvest (continued).

Pest species	Distribu-ion	Postharvest conditions	Stage/time of infestation	Main control	Status of losses
Fungus Fusarium chlamydos-porum	Worldwide	Wet grain; fungi can thrive at low moisture contents; temperature range favorable to fungal growth is 5-35oC but optimum is 25-35oC; fungal growth is inhibited by 20% carbon dioxide atmospheric gas composition but the composition will not prevent deterioration at high moisture content.	After harvest of rice; highly vulnerable to fungi at high moisture content which must be reduced to at most 18% within 24 hours to prevent discoloration and deterioration and from then may be stored safely for no longer than 3 weeks.	Drying, aeration, proper harvesting, and processing of grains, modifying storage atmosphere and chemical treatment. The safe moisture content for paddy is 14%. Aeration prevents heat and respiration water accumulation. Kernel damage during harvesting and threshing becomes an entry point of storage fungi. More than 20% carbon dioxide is needed to prevent fungal deterioration of high moisture grain. Chemical treatment is not recommended.	Losses are most heavily incurred during harvest coinciding with the rainy period as the grain may not be dried immediately. Flash drying or application of high heat for a few seconds will skin-dry the paddy and buy time for normal drying when good weather comes or when a suitable dryer becomes available.