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                        ENEMIES OF STORED GRAIN
 
                               VOLUME II OF
                        SMALL FARM GRAIN STORAGE
 
                                   BY
 
                       CARL LINDBLAD, PEACE CORPS
 
                                   AND
 
                          LAUREL DRUBEN, VITA
 
 
ACTION/PEACE CORPS                           VOLUNTEERS IN TECHNICAL
PROGRAM & TRAINING JOURNAL                     ASSISTANCE
MANUAL SERIES      NUMBER 2                 VITA PUBLICATIONS
                                            MANUAL SERIES NUMBER 35E
 
                     FIRST PRINTING   SEPTEMBER 1976
 
                     SECOND PRINTING,
                     IN THREE VOLUMES   JULY 1977
 
                     THIRD PRINTING     JULY 1980
                    
                                  VITA
                     1600 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 500
                       Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA
                 Tel:  703/276-1800 * Fax:   703/243-1865
                        Internet:   pr-info@vita.org
              
                         TABLE OF CONTENTS
 
INTRODUCTORY                                              
 
     The Purpose of the Manual
     The People Who Prepared This Manual
     The Sponsoring Organization
     How to Use This Manual
     Introduction
 
SECTION 1:  INSECTS                                       
 
     What is an Insect?
     Insect Life Cycle
     How Insects Get into Grain
     Why Insects Infest Grain
     Common Grain Pests
     Information Sheets on Some Major Stored
     Grain Insect Pests
     Control of Insects in Stored Grain
     Controlling Insects without Insecticides
     Checklist
     Insect Control with Insecticides
     Types of Insecticides
     Some Closing Notes
     Insecticide Information Sheets
     Recommended Insecticides and Dosages
     Applying Insecticides
     Note to Development Workers
     Checklist
     Helping Someone Who Has Been Poisoned by Insecticide
 
SECTION 2:  RODENTS                                       
 
     Stored Grain Rodents
     Habits and Characteristics of Stored Grain Rodents
     Finding Rodents on the Farm
     Controlling Rodents without Using Poison
     Controlling Rats with Poison
     Rodent Poison Information Sheets
     Rat Baffles
     "Rats are Everywhere"
     "Know About Rats"
     "Fighting Rats with Poison"
     "Fighting Rats with Traps"
     Rodent Control Illustrations
 
APPENDIX A:  Guidelines for the Use of Insecticides       
 
APPENDIX B:  Bibliography:  Reprint of Listings Prepared 
             by the Tropical Products Institute, London
 
CONVERSION TABLES                                         
 
                        PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL
 
Small Farm Grain Storage is a set of how-to manuals.   Together these
volumes provide a comprehensive overview of storage problems and
considerations as they relate to the small farmer.   The authors
recommend the volumes be purchased as a set because the material forms
an excellent and complete working and teaching tool for development
workers in the field.  This grain storage information can be adapted
easily to meet on-the-job needs; it has already been used as the
basis for a grain storage workshop and seminar in East Africa.
 
This set of publications retains the purpose of the original volume:
to bring together and to communicate effectively to field personnel
1) the basic principles of grain storage and 2) the practical solutions
currently being used and tested around the world to combat
grain storage problems.  Only the format has been changed to:
 
 *   reduce printing and postage costs.
 
 *   permit updating and revising one volume at a time.
 
 *   provide smaller books that are easier to hold and use
    than the large, single volume.
 
 *   make portions of the information available to the user
    who is especially interested in only one or another of
    the major aspects of small farm grain storage.
 
Of course, it is impossible to cover all storage situations in this
manual.  But farmers who understand the basic, unchanging principles
of drying and storing grain are better able to adapt ideas, suggestions,
and technologies from other parts of the world to their own needs.
This material was prepared for use by those who work to facilitate
such understanding.
 
OVERVIEW OF THE MANUAL
 
Volume I, "Preparing Grain for Storage," discusses grain storage
problems as they are faced by small-scale farmers.   This volume
contains explanations of the structure of grain, the relationship
between grain and moisture, the need for proper drying.   One large
section contains detailed, fully illustrated plans for constructing
a variety of small-scale grain dryers.
 
Volume II, "Enemies of Stored Grain," is an in-depth study of two
major enemies:  insects and rodents.  Each is discussed in detail
with guidelines for 1) defining the size of the problem and 2) protecting
grain by both chemical and non-chemical means.   This volume
includes dose and use information for a variety of pesticides, as well
as suggestions for preparing materials to be used in audio-visual
presentations.
 
Volume III, "Storage Methods," contains a survey of storage facilities
from the most traditional basket-type granary to metal bins and cement
silos.  The emphasis in this volume is on improving existing facilities;
for example, there are detailed construction procedures for an
improved mud silo.  Storage in underground pits and sacks also is
discussed.  There are guidelines for using insecticides in storage
situations.  The largest silo presented in detail is the 4.5 ton
cement stave silo.
 
                    THE PEOPLE WHO PREPARED THIS MANUAL
 
Carl Lindblad served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Dahomey (Benin)
from 1972 to 1975.  As a Volunteer, Lindblad worked in programs
designed to introduce and popularize a variety of grain storage
technologies.  Upon his return to the United States, he began the task
of pulling together this manual as a consultant to VITA and Peace
Corps.  At present, he serves as a consultant to a number of international
organizations, specializing in appropriate technologies for
grain storage -- in the areas of planning, extension and evaluation.
He spends much of his time in the field.
 
Laurel Druben served as an International Voluntary Services, Inc.
Volunteer in Laos from 1966 to 1968.  While in Laos she was a
curriculum planner and a teacher of English as a second language.
Subsequently, she worked with a consulting firm evaluating government-funded
research and development projects, ran a small education-oriented
business, and was a free-lance consultant and proposal
writer.  Druben, who has worked and lived in India and Micronesia,
as well as Southeast Asia, is Director of Communications for VITA.
 
Many thanks are due to the skilled and concerned people who worked to
make this manual possible:
 
    A number of VITA people provided technical review, artwork,
    and production skills:
   
    Staff assistance -- John Goodell
   
    Section 4, Vol. I materials -- Frederick Bueche
 
    Technical review -- Douglas Barnes, Merle Esmay, Henry Highland,
                        Larry Van Fossen, Harold Willson, Kenton Harris
    
    Artwork -- George Clark, John Goodell, Kenneth Lloyd,
               Nicholas Reinhardt, Guy Welch
   
    Thanks are extended to the following individuals and institutions
    that provided invaluable assistance in early stages of work on
    the manual:
   
    Mary Ernsberger and Margot Aronson, Peace Corps Program and
        Training Journal, USA
 
    Brenda Gates, Peace Corps Information Collection & Exchange, USA
 
    Tropical Stored Products Center, TPI, Great Britain 
    Henry Barre and Floyd Herum, Agricultural Engineering Department,
        Ohio State University, USA
    Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University,
        USA
    Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agriculture, USA
    Extension Project Implementation Department, Ministry of
        Agriculture, Ethiopia
    F. W. Bennett, Midwest Research Institute, USA
    Supervised Agricultural Credit Programs (SACP), Belize
    Peter Giles, Nicaragua
    Donald Pfalser, Agricultural Cooperatives Development International
        (ACDI), USA
    Technical Assistance Bureau, US Agency for International
        Development (AID), USA
    International Development Research Center, University of Alberta,
        Canada
    League for International Food Education (LIFE), USA
    Institut de Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales et des Cultures
        Vivrieres (IRAT), France
    Post-Harvest Crop Protection Project, University of Hawaii, USA
    Agricultural Engineering Service, FAO
    African Rural Storage Center, IITA, Nigeria
    Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University,
        Nigeria
    Swaziland Rural Grain Storage Project 
    Jim McDowell, Food Technology and Nutrition Section, UNICEF, Kenya
    Gordon Yadcuik, Centre Nationale de Recherches Agronomiques (CNRA),
        Senegal
    R. A. Boxall, Indian Grain Storage Institute, A.P., India
    Siribonse Boon-Long, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation,
        Thailand
    Asian Institute of Technology, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
    Merrick Lockwood, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council
    International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines
    Dante de Padua, University of Los Banos, Philippines
 
                     THE SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS
 
Small Farm Grain Storage is part of a series of publications combining
Peace Corps practical field experience with VITA technical expertise
in areas in which development workers have special difficulties
finding useful resource materials.
 
ACTION/Peace Corps
 
Since 1961 Peace Corps Volunteers have worked at the grassroots level
in countries around the world in program areas such as agriculture,
public health, and education.   Before beginning their two-year
assignments, Volunteers are given training in cross-cultural, technical,
and language skills.  This training helps them to live and work
closely with the people of their host countries.   It helps them, too,
to approach development problems with new ideas that make use of
locally available resources and are appropriate to the local cultures.
 
Recently Peace Corps established an Information Collection and
Exchange, so that these ideas developed during service in the field
could be made available to the wide range of development workers who
might find them useful.  Materials from the field are now being
collected, reviewed, and classified in the Information Collection and
Exchange system.  The most useful materials will be shared with the
development world.  The Information Collection and Exchange provides
an important source of field-based research materials for the production
of how-to manuals such as Small Farm Grain Storage.
 
VITA
 
VITA people are specialists who volunteer their free time to answer
requests for technical assistance.   Many VITA Volunteers have lived
and worked in other countries, often as Peace Corps Volunteers.  Most
VITA people now work in the United States and other developed
countries where they are engineers, doctors, scientists, farmers,
architects, writers, artists, and so on.   But they continue to work
with people in other countries through VITA.   VITA Volunteers have
been providing technical assistance to the Third World for almost
20 years.
 
Requests for assistance come to VITA from many nations.   Each request
is handled by a Volunteer with the right skills.   For example, a
question about grain storage in Latin America might be handled by a
professor of agriculture, and a request for an improved planting
implement would go to an agricultural engineer.   These VITA Volunteers,
many of whom have lived and worked in Third World countries, are
familiar with the special problems of these areas and are able to give
useful, and appropriate, answers.
 
VITA makes the expertise of VITA people available to a wide audience
through its publications program.
                        HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL
 
Development workers can use material from this manual in a number of
ways:
 
     *   Discussions.   The manual provides clear presentations of grain
        storage principles from which you can take material to lead
        discussions with farmers and village leaders.
 
     *   Demonstrations.   There are suggestions for demonstrations and
        experiments which you might find helpful to illustrate grain
        storage principles to farmers.
 
     *   Leaflets.  Some of the material has been prepared in the form
        of illustrated leaflets which can be used directly by you
        with a farmer.  They may require little or no adaptation by
        you.   But, if you prefer, you can use the structure of the
        leaflet and substitute photographs specific to your area.
        The material on rodent control in Volume II is a good example
        of this kind of leaflet.
 
     *   Construction Plans.   Many of the construction plans have been
        simplified so that you will be able to work more closely with
        the farmer.  Some of the plans are fully illustrated.  You
        could add photographs of the work steps showing conditions in
        your area.  It is likely that after you introduce the material,
        farmers can follow the instructions themselves.  The
        plans are written so that they would be easy to translate
        into local languages.  The Improved Maize Drying Crib in
        Volume I is a good example of a step-by-step, illustrated
        presentation.
 
     *   Checklists.  Some of the material most likely to be useful for
        small-scale farmers has been simplified and prepared in checklist
        or hand-out form.  This material would lend itself to
        illustrations or photographs, so it can better fit into the
        local situation.  The checklists on controlling grain storage
        insect pests included in Volume II are in this category.
 
     *   Examples.  The appendices contain examples of leaflets that
        have been prepared by development workers in several countries.
        These examples have been included to give you some
        idea of how the materials in this manual might be organized,
        illustrated, translated, and presented to reach farmers.
 
     *   Sources.  Wherever possible, addresses are given so that you
        can write for more information on a subject.
 
     *   Further Information.   Other appendices contain information on
        areas which, although important, cannot be covered fully within
        the scope of this manual, for example, storage program
        planning.  A bibliography is provided at the end of each volume.
 
These are some of the aims of Small Farm Grain Storage.   You will
probably find added uses.  While it is not possible to make this
manual specific to the situations or culture of your particular area,
the information is presented so that you can do this very easily by
making additions or substitutions to the material.
 
Dimensions are given in metric units in the text and illustrations.
Conversion tables are provided at the end of each volume.
 
This manual will grow and change as its readers and users send in
additional material, comments, and ideas for new approaches to grain
storage problems and better ways to communicate with farmers.  Your
own ideas and conclusions are welcome.   A form has been included for
your comments.  Please send us the results of your silo or dryer
building.  Let us know how you used the information and how it could
be make even more useful to you.   Tell us how you changed a plan to
fit local needs.
 
 
Your experience will help us to produce manuals of growing usefulness
to the world-wide development community.
 
REPLY FORM
 
For your convenience, a reply form has been inserted here.  Please
send it in and let us know how the manual has helped or can be made
more helpful.  If the reply form is missing from your book, just put
your comments, suggestions, descriptions of problems, etc., on a
piece of paper and send them to:
 
                         GRAIN STORAGE
                         3706 RHODE ISLAND AVENUE
                         MT. RAINIER, MD 20822
                         U.S.A.
 
                       ENEMIES OF STORED GRAIN
 
INTRODUCTION
 
In any given part of the world, grain can be attacked in a number of
ways.  For example, some farmers lose a lot of grain to birds and animals
which are common to that area.   Much of this loss occurs because local
methods of grain drying and storage do not provide adequate protection.
 
It is not possible to provide a lot of detail here on all the enemies of
stored grain simply because the list would have to be so long and would
differ by area.  But there are two major groups of stored grain enemies
which are common to all parts of the world:   insects and rodents.   The
material in this volume deals with controlling these pests.
 
The authors wish to make special note here of their intent to add a section
to this volume which contains guidelines for non-chemical/organic
control of stored grain pests.   If you are experimenting with non-chemical
and organic means of control, please let us know of your efforts.
 
1 Insects
 
This discussion of insects deals only with some of the insects that
attack stored grain.  It is designed to help you provide farmers with
the information they need to control insect infestation in their stored
grain.  If you find insects in your area that are not discussed here, or
if you require more information on insects in general, there are more
detailed books which will help you name the pest and will give information
on controlling the pest.
 
WHAT IS AN INSECT?
 
Adult insects have six legs.   Farmers may see other insect-like creatures
in or near their grain, but they are not insects if they have more or
less than six legs.  Spiders, mites, and scorpions have more than six
legs, so they are not insects.
 
Most adult insects have two pairs of wings; some insects can fly and some
cannot.  All adult insects have three main parts to their bodies:  head
(front); thorax (middle); abdomen (behind).   The legs and wings are
attached to the thorax.
 
<FIGURE 1>

51bp01.gif (317x317)


 
Some Other Facts About Insects:
 
     *   Insects have no bones,and the soft inside parts are protected
        in a hard case called the exoskeleton.
 
     *   Insects bite off, scrape off, or chew food using their mandibles
        (jaws).
 
     *   Some insects are 25cm long.   Most grain storage insects are
        only from 2 to 20mm long.  The length of an insect is measured
        from the tip of the head to the end of the abdomen.
 
INSECT LIFE CYCLE
 
<FIGURE 2>

51bp02a.gif (437x437)


 
Humans grow from babies to children to
adults.  This is the human life cycle.
Most grain insects grow from eggs to
larvae to pupae to adults.  These growth
stages are the insects' life cycle.
 
It is not important for a farmer to know
the names of the insects or the names of
the stages in their life cycles.   But it
is important for him to be able to recognize
insects at all these stages.   Moreover,
he must know how stored grain insects develop, so he will know
where to look for signs of insects in his grain.   Adult insects are
easy to see, but larvae and eggs of insects often are not.
 
Eggs
 
Each female insect can lay many eggs.   The number of eggs depends upon
the kind of insect; some females lay hundreds of eggs.   And each of these
eggs could grow into a new adult.   Some insects lay eggs on top of the
grain; some insects lay eggs inside the grain.   The eggs are laid in
storage or in the field, depending upon the kind of insect.
 
Larvae
 
<FIGURE 3>

51bp02b.gif (437x437)


 
Eggs hatch into larvae.  Larvae are often the
big grain eaters.  A larva growing inside a
grain kernel eats out the inside of the kernel.
Each larva is covered with a tough skin called
the cuticle.  The larva grows and the cuticle
gets too small.  The larva throws the cuticle away, keeps eating, and
forms a new skin.  This whole process might happen three or more times
before the larva is full size and passes to the next stage.
 
Pupae
 
This is the transformation stage.   Sometimes the
larva forms a cocoon or other protective covering
around itself as it goes into this stage.   As a
pupa, the growing insect needs no food and moves
only in very small movements.   It just slowly
changes into an adult insect.
 
<FIGURE 4>

51bp03a.gif (437x437)


 
Adult
 
<FIGURE 5>

51bp03b.gif (437x437)


 
When all the adult characteristics are developed,
the pupa throws off a last skin and the adult
comes out.  The new adult is pale and soft.  It
takes 2 - 72 hours for the cuticle of the adult to
harden and take on adult coloring and markings.
 
HOW INSECTS GET INTO GRAIN
 
Insects get into grain in a number of ways, depending upon the kind of
insect:
 
     *   Some insects infest the grain while it is still in the field -- before
        harvest and after (if the grain is being dried in the
        field).
 
     *   Some insects can fly from fields to stored grain and from stored
        grain to the fields.  This   type of insect is very dangerous
        because it can so easily get to the grain.
 
<FIGURE 6>

51bp03c.gif (486x486)


 
     *   Farmers store grain year after year in the same sacks, containers,
        and buildings.  Bins made of wood or woven grasses have cracks
        and spaces which fill up with dust, dirt, and broken grains.
        Insects live in these dirty places and infest the new grain
        right after it is put into the container.
 
     *   New grain is put into a storage building containing grain left
        from the last harvest, grain already heavily infested.
 
     *   Grain goes from the field to the storage place in carts and
        wagons which were not cleaned after the last use.
 
WHY INSECTS INFEST GRAIN
 
Insects which infest grain also eat and live in other materials.  Insects
infest grain because grain provides food.   Unfortunately, in too many cases,
stored grain provides a perfect place for insects to live and grow because
food, air, moisture, and heat are provided.
 
<FIGURE 7>

51bp04a.gif (600x600)


 
Food
 
Obviously, grain provides food.   But grain provides food for insects in
different ways.  Some insects like certain kinds of grains better than
others.  Not all insects eat the same part of the grain kernel.  How they
eat the grain and the part of the grain they eat depends upon the type of
insect.
 
Primary Pests.  Some insects, such as the
Angoumois Grain Moth, the lesser Grain Borer,
and the Rice Weevil are primary pests.   They
attack the grain first.  They are able to
break down the hard seed coat of the whole
grain.  Their eggs are laid inside the kernel,
and the growing larvae eat the inside of the
kernel.
 
<FIGURE 8>

51bp04b.gif (437x437)


 
Secondary Pests.  Other insects follow these first attackers.   These are
secondary pests.  They feed on the grain that now has
broken and cracked seed coats.   The Rusty Grain
Beetle is a good example of a secondary pest.
This beetle will not attack healthy, undamaged
grain, but it will attack spoiled grain.   A
farmer should know which beetles attack first
and which do not.  If a farmer sees a Rusty
Grain Beetle in his stored grain, it is a sign
that he should look for other, worse insect
attackers.
 
<FIGURE 9>

51bp04c.gif (437x437)


 
Tertiary Pests.  There is even a third group of insects found in stored
grain.  These are the tertiary pests.  They feed on
broken grains, grain dust, and powder left by the other
groups.  The Confused Flour Beetle is a tertiary pest of
whole grains.  Also, it is a primary pest of milled grains,
such as flour.
 
<FIGURE 10>

51bp05.gif (437x437)


 
It is not important for a farmer to know the names of these
insects, but he should know how the given insects eat and
whether they attack grains already damaged.   If he can read
the signs left by the insects, he will be better able to
find infestations before they become a major problem.
 
Air
 
Insects do require a certain amount of air containing oxygen to live.
Storing grain in containers which keep out air is based on knowledge of
this fact.  Airtight storage will be discussed later.  Briefly, in airtight
storage, the respiration of the grain, and of insects in the grain,
uses up the oxygen quickly; any insects present in the grain will die.
 
Moisture
 
Insects need some moisture to live, and they can get it from stored grain
in several ways:
 
     *   Insects can take moisture from the air, just as grain can.
 
     *   Grain contains moisture which insects get when they eat it.
        The more moisture the grain contains, the better food it is
        for insects.
 
     *   Insects produce moisture and heat in the stored grain as they
        eat.   The insect-infested grain then respires more quickly
        and produces more heat and more moisture.  In a hot spot,
        where insects are active, grain releases a lot of moisture
        into the grain mass.  Insects can take this moisture into their
        bodies.   When the hot spot becomes too hot, the insects will
        leave it and go to another part of the grain mass.
 
     *   Insects can take moisture directly from the wet surfaces of the
        grain through special openings in their bodies.
 
The fact that insects require a certain amount of moisture is important
because it underlines the need for careful drying of grain
before it goes into storage.
 
Heat
 
Insects live best within a certain temperature range.   As the temperature
in the grain gets lower, they become less active.   At one point they stop
reproducing.  If the temperature goes below 5 [degrees] C they will die, depending
on length of exposure and other conditions.   As the temperature increases
from 10-26 [degrees] C, depending upon the kind of insect, they become more and
more active.  They will reproduce very quickly in a grain hot spot, for
example, until the grain gets too hot.   Above 35 [degrees] C. they have a more difficult
time living and die at 60 [degrees] C.
 
Try to keep stored grain as cool as possible.
 
COMMON GRAIN PESTS
 
There are many kinds of insects which can attack stored grain.  But it is
a much smaller number of insects which cause the major insect problems in
stored grain.
 
<FIGURE 11>

51bp06.gif (218x437)


 
The following pages contain information on some major stored grain insect
pests.  Each insect is discussed on a separate page.  This information
should help farmers indentify the insects which are in their grain.  Since
the right control method often depends upon the kind of insect involved,
and upon the characteristics of that insect's life cycle, each page gives
a picture and description of the insect and other information on that
insect's habits and life cycle.
GRANARY WEEVIL
Sitophilus granarius L.
 
<FIGURE 12>

51bp07a.gif (437x437)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Brown or black
   * Long, thin nose
   * Strong jaws
   * Long stripes on the body
   * No wings
   * 3.5mm long
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In many kinds of grain
   * In all parts of the world
 
LIFE CYCLE
   * Develops from egg to adult
     in 4 weeks, in warm weather
 
Eggs
   * Female lays 50 - 250 eggs
     inside the grain kernel
     after female makes hole
     with strong jaws
 
<FIGURE 13>

51bp07b.gif (437x437)


 
Larvae
   * Grow inside grain kernel
   * See Picture
 
<FIGURE 14>

51bp07c.gif (486x486)


 
Pupae
   * See Picture
 
<FIGURE 15>

51bp07d.gif (540x540)


 
Adults
   * Develop from egg to adult
     in 4 weeks, in warm weather
   * Leave the seed and eats the
     kernel while getting ready
     to lay eggs
   * Adult lives 7-8 months
 
        NOTE:   A Primary Pest.   It looks a lot like the Rice Weevil.
                 The Granary Weevil and the Rice Weevil are the only
                 grain storage insects with long snouts (noses), so
                 they are easy to see.  The Granary Weevil cannot fly;
                 the Rice Weevil can fly.
 
LESSER' GRAIN BORER
 Rhyzopertha dominica F.
 
<FIGURE 16>

51bp08a.gif (600x600)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Shiny, dark brown or black
   * Head turned down under body
   * Strong jaws which cut wood
   * 2.5 to 3mm long
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In warm places all over world
   * In many kinds of grain
 
 
LIFE CYCLE
   * Life Cycle is completed in
      about 5 weeks
   *   Each female lays from 300-500 eggs
 
Eggs
   * Laid on the surface of the grain or
     in spaces between grains
   * Hatch in a few days
 
<FIGURE 17>

51bp08b.gif (486x486)


 
Larvae
   * Crawl around grain eating flour
     left by the boring of adult beetles
   * Bore holes in damaged grains
   * Finish growing inside grain kernel
   * Picture of larva inside kernel of
     wheat.   See Picture
 
<FIGURE 18>

51bp08c.gif (486x486)


 
Pupae
  * See Picture
 
<FIGURE 19>

51bp08d.gif (486x486)


 
Adults
   * Cut their way out of the kerne
   * Feed on grain
 
NOTE:  A Primary Pest, both the beetles and the larvae of the Lesser Grain
       Borer are very dangerous insect pests.  They bore holes in the grain
       and leave behind a powder from the chewed-up grain.  Here is a
       picture which shows kernel of wheat full of holes made by the
       boring and feeding of the adult and the larvae.
 
SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN BEETLE
  Oryzaephilus surinamensis L.
 
<FIGURE 20>

51bp09a.gif (540x540)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Narrow, flat, small, dark brown
   * 3.5 mm long
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In sorghum, maize, and other
     cereals and flour
 
HOW IT GROWS
   * Grows from egg to adult in 3 to 4
     weeks in warm weather
   * Each female lays about 300 eggs
 
Eggs
   * Laid among the grains
   * Hatch in 3 to 5 days
 
<FIGURE 21>

51bp09b.gif (486x486)


 
Larvae
   * Are straw colored
   * Crawl among the grain eating broken
     kernels
   * Grow in this stage about 4 weeks
 
<FIGURE 22>

51bp09c.gif (486x486)


 
Pupae
   * Form in a cocoon
   * See Picture
 
Adults
   * Adults live from 6 months to
     3 years
 
  FLAT GRAIN BEETLE
Laemophloeus pusillus Schonherr
 
<FIGURE 23>

51bp10a.gif (600x600)


 
   WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
      * Long antennae (feelers)
      * Reddish-brown, flat
      * 1 - 2mm long
 
   WHERE IT LIVES
      * In produce which is dusty,
        contains broken grain, or
        is already infested
 
   HOW IT GROWS
      * Grows from egg to adult in
        5 weeks
 
   Eggs
      * Laid in cracks in grain or
        in spilled grain
 
<FIGURE 24>

51bp10b.gif (600x600)


 
   Larvae
      * Yellowish-brown
      * Like to eat the germ of
         cereal grains
      * May not eat any other part of
        grain
      * Like to eat grain having mold
        on it
 
   Pupae
      * Transform in a cocoon
 
   Adults
      * Live from 6 - 12 months
 
   NOTE:   The flat Grain Beetle can be a primary pest.  But if you find this
          beetle, you know that other, more dangerous insects are in the grain.
          Often you find the Flat Grain Beetle in grain already damaged by
          the Rice Weevil.
 
ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH
  Sitotroga cerealella Olivier
 
<FIGURE 25>

51bp11a.gif (600x600)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Light, yellow-brown
   * 8-10mm long
   * 15mm from tip of wing to
     wingtip
   * Fringe on back wings
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * Attacks all grains in
     storage and in the field
   * In all parts of the world
 
LIFE CYCLE
   * Adults do not live long
     and do not eat
     Each female adult lays
     50-100 eggs
 
Eggs
   * Laid on the surface of grain
     in the field or in storage
 
<FIGURE 26>

51bp11b.gif (300x600)


 
Larvae
   * Eat into kernel after hatching
   * Grow inside kernel for 5 weeks
   * Eat inside to the seed coat
     and they cut out part of a
     circle (door) in the seed coat
 
<FIGURE 27>

51bp11c.gif (300x600)


 
Pupae
   * Form inside a cocoon near the
     door cut by the larvae
 
<FIGURE 28>

51bp11d.gif (300x600)


 
Adults
   * Push out through the door
     prepared by larvae
   * Lay eggs on the stored grain
     or fly to the fields and lay
     eggs on grain there
 
<FIGURE 29>

51bp11e.gif (400x600)


 
NOTE:  PRIMARY PEST
 
 RICE WEEVIL
Sitophilus oryzae L.
 
<FIGURE 30>

51bp12a.gif (600x600)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Reddish-brown or black
   * May have 4 light spots on its back
   * Long nose is easy to identify
   * 2.5mm long
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In warm places
   * In sorghum, maize, and other
     stored grain
 
HOW IT GROWS
   * Female lays 300-400 eggs
 
<FIGURE 31>

51bp12b.gif (600x600)


 
Eggs
   * Laid inside the grain kernel
   * Sealed into the hole with secretion
     which makes them difficult to see
 
<FIGURE 32>

51bp12c.gif (486x486)


 
Larvae
   * Have no legs and are white
   * Grow inside grain kernels
     and do most of the damage
   * Stay in larval stage about
     5 weeks
 
<FIGURE 33>

51bp12d.gif (486x486)


 
Adults
   * Leave the kernels.  Half kernel is
     eaten and other half is poor
     quality
   * Feed on the seeds
   * Looks like the Granary Weevil, but
     this weevil can fly
 
NOTE:  PRIMARY PEST.  It can fly.   It flies from grain storage places
       to the fields and back again.  It can infest grain again and
       again.
 
INDIAN-MEAL MOTH
 Plodia interpunctella Hbn.
 
<FIGURE 34>

51bp13a.gif (600x600)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Reddish-brown outer wings
   * Whitish-gray wings next to body
   * 16mm from tip of one wing to
     tip of the other
   * Easy to see in grain
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In broken grains and flour.
     Also can attack whole gains
   * In all parts of world
 
HOW IT GROWS
   * Grows from egg to adult in
     6-8 weeks
   * Each female lays 200-300 eggs
 
Eggs
   * Laid on food or grain
   * Hatch into small, white larvae
 
<FIGURE 35>

51bp13b.gif (486x486)


 
Larvae
   * Eat embryo or germ of grain
   * Spin thread while they eat
   * Dirty white color
   * Sometimes look pink or green
    * Spin a cocoon
 
Pupae
   * Light brown
   * Develop in a cocoon
 
<FIGURE 36>

51bp13c.gif (486x486)


 
Adults
   * Usually attack grain already
     attacked by other insects
   * Live less than 14 days
 
NOTE:  Checking and moving grain from time to time is good protection
       against this insect.  Also, the Indian-Meal Moth is attacked
       by the parasite Bracon hebetor Say.
 
CONFUSED FLOUR BEETLE
Tribolium confusum J. du Val
 
<FIGURE 37>

51bp14a.gif (600x600)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Shiny, reddish-brown, flat
   * 3-4mm long
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In all parts of the world
   * In storage places and flour mills
 
HOW IT GROWS
   * Changes from egg to adult in
     6 weeks in warm weather
   * Female lays 450 eggs
   * Eggs are sticky and stick to
     boxes, sacks, and storage
     containers
 
<FIGURE 38>

51bp14b.gif (486x486)


 
Larvae
   * Larvae eat flour, grain dust,
     and broken surfaces of grain
     kernels
 
Pupae
   * First white, then change to
     yellow and then to brown
     color
 
Adults
   * Live about 1 year
 
DRUGSTORE BEETLE
 Steaobium paniceum L.
 
<FIGURE 39>

51bp15a.gif (486x486)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Small, fat, reddish colored
   * Body covered with soft hairs
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In many kinds of stored grain
   * In all parts of the world
 
LIFE CYCLE
   * Develops from egg to adult
     in 6-8 weeks
   * Each female lays about 100 eggs
 
Eggs
   * Laid in any dry food substance
 
<FIGURE 40>

51bp15b.gif (486x486)


 
Larvae
   * Small and white
   * Enlarged picture
 
<FIGURE 41>

51bp15c.gif (486x486)


 
Adult
   * Looks like cigarette Beetle
   * Adults live only 2 to 4 weeks
 
NOTE:  Protect grain from this beetle by checking the stored grain
       often.   This beetle never attacks grain unless the grain
       has been in storage for a long time without being checked or
       moved.
 
 
<FIGURE 42>

51bp15d.gif (486x486)


 
RED FLOUR BEETLE
Tribolium castaneum Hbst.
 
<FIGURE 43>

51bp16a.gif (540x540)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * 3-4mm long
   * Looks like Confused Flour Beetle
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In warm countries
   * In grain dust and broken grains
 
HOW IT GROWS
   * Female lays 400 - 500 eggs
 
Eggs
   * Laid in dust, flour
 
<FIGURE 44>

51bp16b.gif (486x486)


 
Larvae
   * Stay in larval stage 5 weeks
   * Feed on stored produce
   * Whitish-yellow color
   * Has two, dark, upturned, pointed
     projections at back end of body
 
Adults
   * Eat and breed the same way
     as Confused Flour Beetle
   * Give terrible smell and taste
     to grain in which they live
    KHAPRA BEETLE
Trogoderma granarium Everts
 
<FIGURE 45>

51bp17a.gif (540x540)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Brown or black color
   * Body has many fine, yellowish
     hairs all over
   * 1.5 - 3mm long
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In stored grain
   * In all parts of the world,
     particularly warm places
 
HOW IT GROWS
   * Grows from egg to beetle in 4 - 6
     weeks in good growth conditions
   * Female lays 40 - 70 eggs each
 
<FIGURE 46>

51bp17b.gif (540x540)


 
Larvae
   * Can take up to a year to hatch
   * Yellow-white and have many hairs
   * Leave many hairs in the grain
   * Grow to 6mm in the larval stage.
     Takes about 3 weeks
   * Are able to live without food or
     water for long periods
   * Appear on surface of stored grain
   * Crawl into cracks of buildings and
     bins.   Hard to reach even with
     insecticide
 
Adults
   * Life cycle can take years while
     under poor conditions
   * Breed quickly under good conditions
   * Live only about 14 days
 
NOTE:  Primary Pest.   Grain damaged by the Khapra beetle looks like grain
       which has been attacked by the Lesser Grain Borer.
 
 CIGARETTE BEETLE
Lasioderma serricorne F.
 
<FIGURE 47>

51bp18a.gif (540x540)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Reddish-yellow or brown
   * Head bent down toward body
   * 3mm long
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In stored products all over
     the world
   * In grain left too long in
     storage in the original sacks
 
LIFE CYCLE
   * Develops from egg to adult
     in 6 to 8 weeks
   * Female lays about 100 eggs
 
<FIGURE 48>

51bp18b.gif (486x486)


 
Larvae
   * See Picture
 
<FIGURE 49>

51bp18c.gif (486x486)


 
Pupae
   * See Picture
 
<FIGURE 50>

51bp18d.gif (486x486)


 
Adult
   * Looks like adult Drugstore
     Beetle
   * Adults live from 2 to 4 weeks.
 
FLOUR OR GRAIN MITE
       Acarus siro L.
 
<FIGURE 51>

51bp19.gif (540x540)


 
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
   * Pale, gray-white color
   * Smooth bodies with lots of hairs
   * Breed quickly
   * Real size no bigger than the dot
     of an "i"
 
WHERE IT LIVES
   * In warm, wet places
   * In broken grain and flour
 
WHAT TO LOOK FOR
   * Fluffy, light-brown masses on the floor
     around sacks of stored grain
     These masses are the old skins and dead
     bodies of mites.  If you see these masses,
     there are many, many mites in the grain
 
WHAT MITES DO TO GRAIN
   * They do not eat much grain
   * When there are many mites, the grain gets warmer and wetter
   * When there are many mites, a bad smell develops in the grain
   * Flour which has had large numbers of mites in it is no good for
     baking
 
WHAT TO DO ABOUT MITES
   * Screen and fan the grain if you find mites.
   * Dry grain very well before storing.
   * Dust sacks of flour or other milled cereal products with recommended
     insecticide.  Place sacks so they do not rest directly
     on the floor.
 
                 CONTROL OF INSECTS IN STORED GRAIN
 
INTRODUCTION
 
Adult insects are easy to see in grain.   They live outside the grain,
and they are darker in color.   Often a farmer waits until he sees adults
before he takes any steps to control insects or applies insecticide.
This approach can be a mistake.   When the farmer sees adults, it usually
means the grain contains many more insects than the ones he is seeing.
 
<FIGURE 52>

51bp20.gif (486x486)


 
Insect control should begin before the harvest.   And it must definitely
begin before the grain is put into storage.   There are many steps farmers
can take to protect their grain from pests.   Some of these steps involve
insecticides, but all of them depend upon thorough cleaning of storage
bins and containers.
 
The first step a farmer should take is to plan an insect control program.
His program should include, among other things:
 
     *   finding out which insects are damaging his grain.
 
     *   drying and cleaning his grain very well.
 
     *   asking an extension agent about insecticides.
 
     *   deciding if he has enough money to buy insecticides.
 
The second step a farmer should take is to follow some general guidelines
for cleaning and storing his grain.
 
Whether the storage area is old or new, it must be clean.  Most farmers
can save many grain losses by careful cleaning of storage containers,
bins, and buildings.  And cleaning does not cost large amounts of money.
For just a little time and effort, the farmer can get better returns on
the effort he puts into growing and harvesting his crop.
 
All equipment which touches the grain should be clean.   This includes
tools for harvesting and threshing.   It also means cleaning the carts
and wagons used for carrying the grain.
 
Cleaning and repairing should include:
 
     *   sweeping out grain, grain dust, and dirt from storage
        bins, buildings, or areas in the home where grain is
        kept.
 
     *   repairing cracks in floors, walls, and ceilings where
        insects might get in or live.
 
     *   removing pieces of grain and dust from cracks, beams,
        ledges, and other parts of the building.
 
     *   patching any holes in the building and making sure it is
        watertight; moisture must not get into the storage area.
 
Concrete and metal bins are easier to clean than wooden bins and sacks.
But all containers should be cleaned as carefully as possible.
 
Many farmers make the mistake of storing grain from a new crop near
grain from an older crop.  If the grain from the old crop is full of
insects (and it usually is), the insects will spread to the new grain
quickly.  Also, grain for eating and selling should never be put into
storage with grain which will be used to feed the animals.  Animal
grain usually sits around for a long time and is full of insects.
 
<FIGURE 53>

51bp21.gif (486x486)


 
Sometimes farmers cannot find or afford the correct insecticide.  In
these cases, careful cleaning will help the problem.   In fact,
insecticides will not work properly unless they are used under dry,
clean conditions.  So the following material presents information on
steps the farmer can take to control insects -- both with and without
the use of insecticides.
 
CONTROLLING INSECTS WITHOUT INSECTICIDES
 
Traditional Methods
 
Farmers have been fighting insects for hundreds of years.  They accept
the fact that insects are going to eat and destroy a certain amount of
their grain.  Here are some insect control methods farmers use:
 
<FIGURE 54>

51bp22.gif (600x600)


 
Sunning.  Insects leave
grain which is placed in
hot sunlight.  They do
not like heats higher than
40-44 [degrees] C.  The sunning
process, however, does not always
kill eggs and larvae which
are inside the kernels of grain.
 
Mixing Local Plants with Grain.   In many areas, farmers mix local plants
with grain.  Information about which plants, and which parts of the
plants, should be mixed with grain is passed on within the family; the
plants differ from one part of the world to another.   Such natural
control methods, or methods which provide active control without insecticide,
need to be looked at more closely.   Future editions of this manual
might include a chapter on using such plants and other natural control
methods.
 
Mixing Sand or Wood-Ash with Grain.   This is another natural-control
method.  Some farmers mix sand or wood-ash with threshed grain to keep
insects from breeding.  The sand scratches the covering or cuticle of
the insect's body and the insect loses moisture through the scratches.
If the grain is dry, insects will not be able to get enough moisture
to replace the moisture lost though the scratches, and they will die.
 
Smoking.  Some farmers store unthreshed grain on raised wooden platforms.
They build small smoky fires under the platforms.   Other farmers
store harvested grain in the roof of the building or shelter used for
cooking.  Both of these methods use the smoke and heat of fires to
kill and drive insects out of the grain.   The heat from the fires also
helps to keep the grain dry and protects the grain from new insect
attacks.
 
Storing in Airtight Containers.   This is the process of putting grain
into a closed container so that no air can enter the grain.  Insects in
the grain then die because there is not enough air containing oxygen.
In some areas, farmers store grain in very dry underground pits which
can be made quite airtight.  Other types of airtight storage containers
can be more difficult to build and maintain.   Airtight storage is talked
about more completely in the section on storage methods.
 
Storing Unthreshed Grain.  The husk on maize and the hull of rice offer
some protection from insect attack.   If the rice hull is hard and dry,
it is more difficult for insects to attack the grain kernels.  Many farmers
store their grain without threshing when they do not have insecticides.
 
Improvement in Traditional Methods
 
It is very important to have a clean and waterproof building for storing
the grain.  If the farmer is choosing a site for a new building, the
buildings should he placed as far away as possible from grain standing in
the fields.  This helps protect against insects flying from the field to
the storage area.  The grain storage place should not be built near
places where animals are kept:   certain insects found near animals and
their food also attack stored grains.
 
<FIGURE 55>

51bp23.gif (540x540)


 
Most farmers know that insects are a problem, and will not have to be
convinced.  Or perhaps it is better to say that some farmers may need to
be shown how insects infest grain; they must be convinced that there is
really something they can do about insects.   For a farmer who has
looked upon insects in his grain as a part of his life for years, the
biggest forward step he will take is realizing that there is something
he can do about the problem.
 
There are some easy ways to show how insects can be kept out of grain.
You probably use them in your work. Here is one way:
 
     *   Take several small bags of grain, each of which is
        clean and free of insects.
 
        -- Place one bag near the animal grain
 
        -- Place one bag beside grain that has been in
           storage a long time
 
     *   Place one bag in a clean, cool, dry corner away from
        other grain.  Make sure this bag is not placed directly
        on the floor and keep it away from the walls.
 
Insects will, of course, attack all these bags of grain.  What will be
interesting is how long it takes for the infestation to develop in each
bag, and how much damage occurs in a given period of time.  It should
take longer for the infestation to develop in the clean grain stored
away from other grains.
 
Also, if you want to use the same demonstration to show how an improved
storage method protects against insects, place insect-free grain, equal
to the amount in the other bags, in a small plastic bag.  Seal the bag
tightly and put it next to bags of grain which have been in storage for
some time.  All of the other bags will have insects in them; this
one will not.
 
Following here is a checklist of steps which can be taken to control
insects without using insecticides.   In fact, these rules for cleaning
and storing only dry grain should be followed even if insecticide is
used.  Insecticides will not provide protection unless they are given
the right conditions in which to work.   Perhaps you will be able to adapt
this checklist to fit your situation and use it as you work with farmers.
 
            CONTROLLING INSECTS WITHOUT INSECTICIDES
 
                           A CHECKLIST
 
Suggestions for Use:  Pick out the points that will be most useful to
farmers in your area.  Translate and illustrate them as necessary.
 
 
     *   Store grain away from wet areas.
     
     *   Protect the stored grain from rain and run-off.
     
     *   Keep stored grain or grain containers out of strong
        sunlight.  This will keep the grain cooler.  Warm
        grain will breed more insects.
     
     *   Place stored grain containers or buildings where winds
        can help cool the containers.
    
     *   Keep the stored grain as far away from the fields as
        possible.  This helps keep flying insect pests from
        flying to the stored grain from the fields.
     
     *   MAKE SURE THE STORAGE AREA IS CLEAN.   SWEEP ThE WALLS,
        CEILINGS, AND FLOORS AND GET OUT ALL DIRT, OLD GRAIN,
        AND DUST BEFORE YOU PUT NEW GRAIN IN.
 
     *   Make sure the containers for the grain are very clean.
 
     *   Clean the grain well.
 
     *   Dry the grain well.
    
     *   Put only whole, healthy grains into storage. Do not store
        broken grains.
 
     *   If possible, place grain into special containers which you
        can seal tightly.
 
     *   Do not place sacks of grain near the walls.  Make sure
        the sacks are not placed directly on the floor.  Moisture
        from the ground will dampen the grain if the sacks are
        left on the floor.
 
     *   Check your grain often.
 
     *   Watch for flying beetles in the early morning or late
        afternoon.
 
     *   Watch for moths anytime of day.
 
     *   Hit a sack against the floor.   Then let it rest out of
        direct sunlight for a while.  Then check to see if
        there are any weevils on the outside of the sack.
 
     *   Dump part of the grain out or take some out from the
        middle of the storage container.
 
     *   Put the grain through a sieve.
 
     *   If a large number of insects is present, dump all the
        grain out on a tray or plastic sheet under a hot sun.
        Do not put the grain directly on the ground.
 
     *   Or put all the grain through a sieve and remove the
        insects.   Burn the insects so they can not return to
        the grain.
 
     *   Mix grain with sand and ash when you put it into the
        storage containers.  Sand and ash damage the insects'
        bodies, and they die.
 
     *   Store unthreshed grain on raised wooden platforms and
        build small smoky fires underneath.  The heat and smoke
        from the fire help drive the insects away.
 
     *   Plan for storing the next crop.   If you continue to
        have trouble with insects, see if there is a storage
        method which might be better.  Also, find someone who
        knows how to use insecticide and get advice on your
        problem.
 
INSECT CONTROL WITH INSECTICIDES
 
<FIGURE 56>

51bp26.gif (317x317)


 
Insecticides are poisons used for killing
insects.  But insecticides also can kill or
hurt humans and animals if they are not used
correctly.  Use only recommended insecticides
on clean, dry grain.  Insecticides
must always be used with care.
 
Most farmers know something about
insecticides.  But often they are not
aware of exactly what insecticides
should be used for or of the
differences among insecticides.
 
Farmers may use insecticides without knowing how to apply the insecticide
they are using or on what materials that insecticide can be used.  Some
insecticides are safer than others; some insecticides can poison grain as
well as insects.  The danger in insecticide use is that farmers do not have
enough information about insecticides to use them correctly for their type of
grain and their storage situation.   For example, many farmers around the world
call all insecticides, DDT.  They are likely to go to market, pick up some DDT
powder, and use in ways and places which can lead to sickness and even death.
 
This section of the manual presents information on insecticides in a
form which should help you provide farmers in your area with the information
they need to use insecticides appropriately and safely.
 
The use of insecticides cannot be separated from the kind of storage
container and the purpose for which the grain will be used.  Some
insecticides can be used on grain for seed, but cannot be used on grain
for food.  Some insecticides can be used for treating both kinds of grain.
The following is a basic discussion of types and kinds of insecticides
used in grain storage work.  These insecticides also are discussed in
the section on storage methods.
 
TYPES OF INSECTICIDES
 
Many different poisons kill insects.   But there is a much smaller
number of poisons (insecticides) which are useful in grain storage work.
Some insecticides are made from parts of plants.   Pyrethrum is an example
of this type.  Some, such as Cyanide, are inorganic chemicals; others are
man-made organic chemicals such as Malathion and BHC.
 
The insecticides available to farmers to use for grain storage purposes
are of two major types  -- contact chemicals and fumigant gases.   These
insecticides can be bought in a number of forms (formulations); they are
applied differently depending upon the type of grain and the type of
storage.
Contact Chemicals.  These are the contact poisons:  the insect must
actually get these insecticides on its body.   The contact chemicals are
available in the following formulations:
 
Dusts
 
These contain a low concentration of insecticide mixed with powder.
This makes them safer to handle than some of the other formulations
available.  Dusts also:
 
     *   are ready to use.
    
     *   must be kept dry or they will not mix evenly, and the
        insecticide will not work as long.
 
     *
    
     *   may be mixed with grain at the time of storage. Use
        only those dusts, for example, Malathion and Lindane,
        recommended for this purpose.
 
Wettable Powders (Dispersible Powders)
 
These contain a high concentration of insecticide.   Wettable powders:
 
     *   must be mixed with water before they can be used.
 
     *   require careful mixing.
     
     *   are used to spray outside surfaces of sacked grain,
        storage containers, or buildings.
 
     *   are never used directly on grain.
    
     *   can be applied with simple sprayers which can be
        purchased or made.
 
Emulsion Concentrates
 
These are liquid concentrates which:
 
     *   must be mixed with water before they can be used.
 
     *   contain a high amount of insecticide mixed with
        other ingredients.
     
     *   need special equipment to apply.
 
     *   are more difficult for farmers to use.
 
Emulsions of pyrethrum or Malathion are available, and the directions
for mixing are usually given on the labels of the containers.  But
farmers should know of the need for special equipment to apply these,
so that they do not spend their money on a formulation of insecticide
which they will not be able to use.
 
Other Forms.  These are liquid concentrates and powders which must be
used with special equipment.   These formulations are used with fogging
machines and smoke generators; they are not appropriate for use by most
farmers.
 
REMEMBER:  It is important for the farmer to know which formulations
are available in his area, which of these formulations he can use,
which he should not use, and how they should be applied.
 
Fumigants
 
<FIGURE 57>

51bp28.gif (285x285)


 
The second major category of insecticides is the
fumigants.  Fumigants are gases.  Fumigants have
several advantages as an insect control method:
 
*  Gas can enter all the cracks in storage
   buildings to kill insects hiding there.
 
*  Gas can get between the tightly packed
   grains in storage and, in most cases,
   can kill larval stages within the kernels.
 
*  Gas does not leave marks on the grain as
   some insecticides do.
 
But farmers should also know that there are problems involved in using
fumigants:
 
     *   The choice of fumigant is very important.  Fumigants are
        extremely dangerous to man, but some are easier and safer
        to use than others.  A fumigant must be chosen which will
        not leave poison in the grain and which is relatively safe
        for the farmer to use.
 
        MOST FUMIGANTS ARE SAFE ONLY WHEN USED BY A SKILLED OPERATOR
 
     *   Fumigants kill only insects which are already in the
        grain.   They do not protect grain from new attacks.
 
     *   Fumigants must be used in airtight containers.  If the
        farmer is storing his grain in jute sacks, he will have
        to find an oil drum, or some other container which can
        be made airtight before he can fumigate his grain.  Or
        he must be able to cover his grain sacks with heavy
        plastic and fumigate in this way.
 
     *   Fumigation may hurt the ability of seeds to germinate.
 
Fumigants are available in the following forms:
 
Solid Fumigants[N].  These fumigants are in tablet or packet or pellet
form.  The active chemical is Aluminum
Phosphide.  The tablets release
Phosphine gas when moisture touches
them.  Fortunately, the tablets take
about three hours to release enough
poison gas to kill a person, so the
person who follows the rules for
fumigation carefully can use these
tablets safely.  The fumigant is
sold under the trade names Phostoxin,
Detia, and Celphos.
 
<FIGURE 58>

51bp29a.gif (486x486)


 
Liquid Fumigants and Low Boiling
Point Gases.  Some of these are
Carbon Tetrachloride, Ethylene
Dichloride, Ethylene Dibromide,
and Methyl Bromide.  They are all
dangerous to apply and must be applied
by trained people wearing full protective
clothing.  Do not recommend these formulations to farmers for individual
use.  Warn very strongly against them.  They can kill people, if used
incorrectly.
 
The number of insecticides which can be used on stored grain products
is really not large.  Knowledge of these insecticides is important to
the farmer.  And he must have enough information about the insecticide
and its use so that he can use it safely.
 
Information on using insecticides with stored grain is included in the
storage section of this manual (Volume 3).
 
SOME CLOSING NOTES
 
In more and more places around the world, farmers are able to find and
buy some of the newer formulations for insect control.   Here are two
examples of insecticides which may be useful to control flying insects
in the home or farm shed, though they are of no value in stored grain.
 
<FIGURE 59>

51bp29b.gif (353x353)


                     
*  Vapona Pest Strip -- This strip is hung
   from the ceiling.  It contains the insecticide
   Dichlorvos, which is released slowly
   into the air over a period of some weeks.
 
*  BAYGON -- This is a trade name given to an
   aerosol spray formulation being seen in more
   and more places.  This spray is handy to use
   and is effective for spraying storage buildings.
 
Although these formulations are not dangerous when used correctly, they
can be harmful when used without proper directions.   BAYGON, for example,
must not be sprayed around food.
 
It is a good idea for you to know which formulations are available in
your area and are likely to be picked up by farmers looking for insecticides.
Often these formulations are brought in from other countries,
and the containers are written in another language:   even a farmer who can
read his own language will not be able to read the instructions and
warnings on the can.  If you keep in touch with the insecticides that are
available, you can prepare insecticide-use directions in your own
language (s), or in picture language which would give uses and non-uses
without words.
 
The following pages contain information on some of the more important
grain storage insecticides.  Each insecticide is listed on a separate
page so that you can remove material on those most available in your area.
Perhaps you can use the information to put together a short leaflet on
insecticide use to hand out to farmers.   This is a good way to introduce
and encourage appropriate and safe use of insecticides.
 
Also included here are:
 
     *   Recommended dosages and insecticides for use with grain,
        in storage buildings, etc.
 
     *   A sample of methods for applying insecticide.
 
     *   A checklist on when to use insecticides and on how to
        use them safely.
 
     *   A list of steps to take if a person is poisoned by
        insecticide.
 
The appendices to this manual contain a selection of leaflets that have
been used, or are being used, by development workers in various parts of
the world.  Perhaps they will give you ideas on how best to combine
material from this manual with knowledge of your area and farmer need.
Additional information about insecticides and their applications which
is of interest to you, but not necessarily to the farmer, is included in
Appendix A.
 
                    INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
 
                            MALATHION
 
OTHER NAMES:   Malaphos, Malathon, Malphos, Cythion, Emmatos,
               Carbophos, Mercaptolhion
 
TYPE:          Contact Chemical
 
FORMULATIONS:  Emulsion Concentrate, Wettable Powder, Dust,
               Granules, Aerosol, Baits
 
WARNING:       ONE OF THE SAFEST INSECTICIDES FOR MAN TO USE.
               DO NOT USE OR PUT IN METAL CONTAINERS SUCH AS IRON.
 
CONTROLS:      Aphids, mites, flies, leaf hoppers, mealy bugs,
               Japanese beetles, corn earworms, ants, spiders
               and many others. Some special grain storage notes
               about Malathion:
              
               *   works well against Saw-Toothed Grain Beetle,
                  Rice and Granary Weevils.
 
               *   does not work against the Red Flour Beetle in
                  some areas.
 
               *   does not control adult moths and mites as well
                  as BHC.
 
USE TO:        MIX WITH GRAIN.  Apply as a dust to grain when it goes
               into storage.  Use 125 grams of Premium Grade Malathion
               1.0% Dust per 100kg.  It should be used only with very
               dry grain.  Malathion does not work well in wet or
               moldy grain.
              
               SPRAY OR BRUSH ON BUILDINGS.  It is unstable on
               cement or whitewashed walls.
 
               DUST interior surfaces in contact with grain.
 
                       INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
 
                                PYRETHRUM
 
OTHER NAMES:   Pyrethrum is used with piperonyl butoxide
 
TYPE:          Contact Chemical
 
FORMULATIONS:  Sprays and Dusts
 
WARNING:       IT IS NOT DANGEROUS TO MAN, AND IT CAN BE USED NEAR
               FOOD.  BUT IT CAN CAUSE ALLERGIES IN SOME PEOPLE.
 
CONTROLS:      All grain storage insects.  They are not resistant to
               it.
 
USE TO:        SPRAY STORAGE AREAS.  It is a good insect repellant,
                and controls moths.
 
                MIX DUST DIRECTLY WITH GRAIN GOING INTO STORAGE.
 
NOTE:  It costs a lot. Pyrethrum is a natural insecticide.  It is
       made from the heads of a certain kind of flower.  It repells
       insects, but its power does not last long and breaks down in
       oxygen, water, or light.  This is why piperonyl butoxide or
       another stabilizer is added to the pyrethrum.
 
                     INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
 
                               LINDANE
 
OTHER NAMES:   Gammexane, Isotox, Gamma, Renesan, OKO, BHC (extremely
               similar but not the same)
 
TYPE:          Contact Chemical
 
FORMULATIONS:  Dust, Wettable Powder
 
WARNING:       NOT IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO MAN, BUT, IF YOU TOUCH IT
               OFTEN, YOUR BODY KEEPS THE POISON INSIDE.  IF YOUR BODY
               HOLDS TOO MUCH POISON, SICKNESS CAN RESULT.  ALWAYS
               READ THE INSTRUCTIONS ON THE CONTAINER, AND USE LINDANE
               CORRECTLY.
 
               REMEMBER:
 
               *   DO NOT APPLY TO CROPS FOR FOOD WITHIN 30 DAYS
                  AFTER HARVEST.
 
               *   IT IS POISON TO FISH AND HONEY BEES.
 
               *   DO NOT USE ON CHICKENS OR CHICKEN HOUSES.
 
CONTROLS:      Aphids, lygus bugs, grasshoppers, roaches, mange
               mites, termites.  It is very good against weevils which
               have developed resistance to BHC and against the audlt
               stage of the Angoumois Grain Moth.
 
USE TO:        TREAT YOUR SEED FOR PLANTING.  Use 113g to 454g
               to treat the seed required to plant 25 acres.  Store
               treated seed below 21 [degrees] C and use within three months of
               treatment.  Dosage should not go above 2.5 ppm on cob
               maize and above 5 ppm on unthreshed sorghum.
 
               DUST on unshelled groundnuts; unthreshed sorghum, bags
               of maize, wheat, rice, maize in cribs.
 
               SPRAY STORAGE AREAS.
 
                       INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
                 
                                DICHLORVOS
 
OTHER NAMES:   DDVP, Vapona
 
TYPE:          Contact Chemical and Fumigant
 
FORMULATIONS:  Spray, Pest Strip
 
WARNING:       CAN BE DANGEROUS TO PEOPLE AND ANIMALS IF NOT
               HANDLED CORRECTLY.
 
               HANDLE PEST STRIP WITH GLOVES.
 
               DO NOT LET PEST STRIP TOUCH FOOD.
 
CONTROLS:      Moths, beetles.  It is very poisonous to flying moths
               in a tight building, but kills beetles more slowly.
 
USE TO:        SPRAY STORAGE PLACES to kill flying insects.  It
               does not last long.
 
               Provide control of flying insects by hanging the
               VAPONA PEST STRIP.  The strips give off poison for
               about 3 months (depending upon climate).
 
                     INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
 
                                 DDT
 
OTHER NAMES:   Chlorophenothene, Accotox, Anofex, Neocid, Neocidol,
               Pentachlorin, Sillortox.
 
TYPE:          Contact Chemical, long-lasting.
 
FORMULATIONS:  Emulsion Concentrate, an aerosol, granules, dusts.
               It is also sold mixed with other pesticides.
 
WARNING:       *   DDT IS NOT IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO MAN.  BUT
                  SINCE THIS POISON DOES STAY ON THINGS FOR A LONG
                  TIME, THERE IS SOME CONCERN ABOUT WHETHER DDT
                  CAN HURT PEOPLE WHO USE IT VERY OFTEN AND FOR
                  A LONG TIME.  USE IT CAREFULLY.
 
               *   DO NOT USE NEAR FOOD.
 
               *   DO NOT USE IN AREAS WHERE IT MAY POLLUTE THE WATER
                  SUPPLY.
 
               *   DO NOT USE TO DUST SACKS OF STORED GRAIN.
 
               *   DO NOT USE WHEN THE TEMPERATURE IS OVER 90 [degrees] F.
 
               *   DO NOT USE ON DAIRY ANIMALS OR IN DAIRY BUILDINGS
                  OR AROUND POULTRY.
 
               *   DO NOT STORE IN IRON CONTAINERS.
 
               *   DO NOT USE TO DUST INSIDE OF GRAIN STORAGE CONTAINERS.
 
 
CONTROLS:      Codling moths, flea beetles, leaf hoppers, corn earworms,
               corn borers, thrips, flies, mosquitoes, leaf miners,
               Japanese beetles, spittle bugs, and others.   It works
               well against beetles, in some areas, but in other places
               beetles have developed resistance.
 
USE TO:        PROTECT YOUR STORAGE BUILDING against insect attack.
               Apply the DDT either by spraying or painting it on
               with a brush.  Repeat the treatment every six to
               eight weeks.
 
NOTE:  DDT no longer works against some insects.
 
                      INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
 
                                B H C
 
OTHER NAMES:   Benzene Hexachloride, hch, hoch
 
TYPE:          Contact Chemical, lasts a long time.
 
FORMULATIONS:  Emulsion Concentrate, Wettable Powder, Dust and Smoke.
               Sometimes it is sold mixed with other pesticides.
 
WARNING:       SAFE TO USE IN THE CORRECT DOSAGES.  READ DIRECTIONS
               CAREFULLY.  NEVER USE MORE THAN THE DIRECTIONS SAY
               TO USE.
 
               *   DO NOT USE ON OR NEAR CATTLE OR PLACES WHERE
                  CATTLE LIVE.
 
               *   DO NOT FEED TREATED FORAGE OR CROPS TO
                  LIVESTOCK.
 
               *   DO NOT ALLOW IT TO POLLUTE WATER SUPPLY.
 
               *   DO NOT USE ON ROOT CROPS.   IN MANY FRUITS AND
                  VEGETABLES, BHC CAUSES A FUNNY TASTE TO DEVELOP.
                  ROOT CROPS ABSORB AND HOLD THE FLAVOR.  TOO MUCH
                  BHC CAN HURT GERMINATION, AND SEED GROWTH.
 
               *   DO NOT STORE NEAR ANY PRODUCE THAT WILL ABSORB
                  THE SMELL OF THE INSECTICIDE.
 
               *   IT IS POISON TO FISH AND HONEY BEES.
 
CONTROLS:      Grasshoppers, ticks, chiggers, aphids, lygusbugs,
               spittle bugs, thrips, fleabeetles, leafhoppers,
               armyworms, wire worms, flies, mosquitos, ants,
               termites, and others.
 
USE TO:        SPRAY OR DUST THE INSIDE AND OUTSIDE OF GRAIN STORAGE
               BUILDINGS.  Keep animals away while you are working
               with BHC.
 
               MIX WITH SEED that is going to be used for planting.
                         INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
 
                               DIELDRIN
 
OTHER NAMES:     HEOD
 
TYPE:            Contact Insecticide.
 
FORMULATIONS:    Emulsion Concentrate (EC), Wettable Powder (WP),
                 Dust, and Granules.
 
WARNING:         DO NOT TOUCH.  IT CAN BE ABSORBED THROUGH THE SKIN.
                 IT IS EXTREMELY DANGEROUS TO MAN IF NOT USED CORRECTLY.
 
                 *  DO NOT APPLY DIRECTLY TO ANIMALS OR LET ANIMALS
                    EAT TREATED CROPS.
 
                 *  DO NOT DUMP EXTRA SOLUTION INTO LAKES, STREAMS,
                    OR PONDS.  IT WILL KILL FISH.  PEOPLE WHO EAT
                    THESE FISH WILL GET VERY SICK.
 
                 *  IT IS POISON TO BEES.
 
                 *  DO NOT USE TO TREAT GRAIN OR ANY PRODUCT TO
                    BE USED FOR FOOD, ANIMAL FEED, OR OIL PURPOSES.
 
USE TO:          Protect storage buildings against insect attack.
 
                         INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
 
                               PHOSTOXIN
 
OTHER NAMES:     Celphos, Detia, Delicia, Phosphine
 
TYPE:            Fumigant
 
FORMULATIONS:    Pellets, tablets, or packets
 
WARNING:         VERY DANGEROUS.
 
                 *  THESE TABLETS GIVE OFF A GAS WHICH CAN
                    KILL A MAN IN A FEW MINUTES.
 
                 *  THIS INSECTICIDE MUST ONLY BE USED IN
                    AIRTIGHT SITUATION OR CONTAINERS.
 
                 *  TALK TO SOMEONE WHO KNOWS HOW TO USE
                    PHOSTOXIN IF YOU HAVE NOT USED THIS
                    FUMIGANT BEFORE.
 
CONTROLS:        Weevils, grain beetles, grain borers, flour
                 beetles, cadelle, flour moths, grain moths
                 and others.
 
USE TO:          Fumigate grain in airtight conditions.
                 Fumigation must continue for at least 72
                 hours.  This poison kills the insects present
                 in the grain, but does not protect the
                 grain from attack again.
 
                     RECOMMENDED INSECTICIDES AND DOSAGES
 
FOR MIXING DIRECTLY WITH FOOD-GRAINS:
 
        Malathion -- 120 grams of 1.0% Dust for each 200kgs of grain.
       
        Lindane    -- 120 grams of 0.1% Dust for each 200kgs of grain.
      
        Pyrethrum -- 120 grams of 0.2% pyrethrins plus 1.0% piperonyl
                     butoxide.  Dust for each 200kg of grain.
 
FOR MIXING DIRECTLY WITH SEED-GRAINS:
 
It is possible to use more insecticide on grain to be used only for seed
than can be used on grain for food.   If there is any chance the grain
will be used for food, use only the Malathion, Lindane, or Pyrethrum at
the dosage recommended for food grain.
 
If the farmer is certain the grain will be used for seed, he can use:
 
          Malathion, Lindane, or Pyrethrum -- 2 to 5 times more
          Dust than can be used for food grain.
         
          DDT -- 100 grams of 3 or 5% DDT Dust for each 100kg
          of grain.
 
IMPORTANT:  There may be other insecticides available in your area
            which can be used for grain-storage work.  Make sure
            you know what these insecticides are and how to use
            them.
 
FOR SPRAYING STORAGE BUILDINGS:
 
Note before spraying:
 
     *   Always clean the building before spraying.
    
     *   Dispersible Powders (DP) are better than Emulsion
        Concentrates (EC) for spraying on cement, brick,
        stone, or whitewashed surfaces.
     
     Malathion -- Mix 400 grams of 25% DP or 200 milliliters
                  of 50% EC in 5 liters of water.
 
     Lindane ---- Mix 200 grams of 50% DP or 500 milliliters
                  of 20% EC in 5 liters of water.
 
     DDT -------- Is sometimes used to spray buildings.  It
                  must never be used directly on food.
 
     Lindane/DDT- Mix 100 grams of Lindane 50% DP and 200 grams
                  of DDT 50% DP in 5 liters of water.
 
                                      OR
 
                  Mix 250cc of Lindane 20% EC and 400cc
                  of DDT 25% EC in 5 liters of water.
 
All of these dosages will spray 100 sq.m.   If a larger area must be sprayed,
mix more insecticide.  Reapply the spray as needed.
 
IMPORTANT:  There may be other insecticides available in your area
            which can be used for grain-storage work.  Make sure
            you know what these insecticides are and how to use
            them.
 
                        APPLYING INSECTICIDES
 
<FIGURE 60>

51bp41.gif (600x600)


 
NOTE TO DEVELOPMENT WORKERS ON APPLYING INSECTICIDES
 
Many farmers in your area will have trouble following directions for
measuring correct dosages of insecticides.   This is true because the
directions often require exact weight measures.
 
Therefore, it is a good idea for you to figure out a simple measure
which farmers can use for their storage containers.   For example:
 
     *   1-1/2 matchboxes of insecticide for each standard-size
        area basket granary
  
     *   1 empty sardine can of insecticide for each metal
        bin.
 
These are only examples, of course.   You should figure out the dosage
depending upon the kind of insecticide, the types of measures (matchboxes,
tin cans, etc.) farmers are likely to have, and on the kinds of
storage container most used in your area.
 
                   CONTROLLING INSECTS BY USING INSECTICIDE
 
                                  A CHECKLIST
 
Suggestions for Use:  Pick out the points that will be most useful to
farmers in your area.  Translate and illustrate them as necessary.   Add
the names and dosages of those insecticides most likely to be used by
farmers in the area.
 
Insecticides are poisons used for killing insects.   There are many types
of insecticides.  Some insecticides can be added directly to grain;
others may be sprayed around grain storage areas or on the outside of the
containers, but should never be placed directly on the grain.  Some
insecticides are liquids; some insecticides are powders.  Some insecticides
are gases which you use by adding them to the grain, sealing the
container up tight, and letting the fumes of the poison gas kill the
insects in the grain.
 
Never use an insecticide until you are sure you know how it should be
used and all the rules. for applying it.
 
Insecticides are not magic.  They should be used with clean, dry grain
in good storage conditions if they are to work well.
 
To use insecticides effectively for storage, you should:
 
     *   Find out which insecticide to use for each purpose.
 
     *   Know how to use and handle insecticides properly.
 
     *   Have good storage buildings and containers.
 
     *   Spray the walls of the storage building to kill insects
        hiding in cracks in the ceiling and floor.
 
     *   Dust the storage containers in and out with the appropriate
        insecticide.
 
     *   Mix insecticide into the grain before putting the grain
        into storage.  To do this, you can put the grain in a
        pile in a place protected from wind.  Add the right
        insect poison from a tin can with holes punched in the
        top.   Turn the grain over and over with a shovel to mix
        the poison with the grain.  IMPORTANT:   BE CAREFUL TO
        USE THE CORRECT INSECTICIDE.  IF YOU ARE NOT CERTAIN IT
        IS CORRECT, ASK YOUR EXTENSION AGENT.
 
     *   Check the grain after it has been in storage for some time.
        You may have to add more insecticide.  Poisons only remain
        dangerous to insects for a period of time.
 
To use insecticides safely you must:
 
     *   Read the directions on insecticide containers carefully.
        It will give you correct ways to use the insecticide and
        tell you what to do in case of an accident.
    
     *   Make sure the mixture is correct for its purpose.  Using
        a wrong insecticide can poison the grain.
 
     *   Do not use more than the recommended dose.
 
     *   Wear rubber gloves when using insecticide.
   
     *   Wash your hands with a lot of running water after you
        use insecticide.  Do this right away if your hands
        touch the poison.
 
     *   Take off any clothing that has touched the poison.
    
     *   Do not eat, drink, or smoke while you are using poison.
    
     *   Label poison containers so that you know what is inside.
    
     *   Keep containers away from children and animals.
    
     *   Bury or burn all empty insecticide containers.  If you
        bur them, be sure they will not pollute underground
        water sources.
 
                   HELPING SOMEONE WHO HAS BEEN POISONED BY
 
                            INSECTICIDE
 
1.                  HEADACHE           WEAKNESS
                    NAUSEA             SWEATING
                    DIZZINESS          VOMITING
 
     These are signs of poisoning.
 
2.  IF:   The person feels sick while using an insecticide or soon
         afterward
 
    THEN:   Get the poisoned person to the doctor as soon as possible.
 
    Find the insecticide container or label so the doctor will know
    which insecticide poisoned the person.
 
3.  IF:   The person swallowed a poison
 
                   and if
 
         he is awake
 
                   and
 
         he can't see a doctor right away
 
    THEN:   Mix a tablespoonful of salt in a glass of warm water
           and make the victim vomit.  Or stick your finger down
           the person's throat.  Make him vomit!
   
           Make the victim lie down.  Keep him warm, and do not
           let him move until you can get him to the doctor.
 
4.  IF:   The person spilled an insecticide concentrate or oil solution
         on his skin or clothing, get the clothing off and wash the
         skin with soap and plenty of water.
 
    THEN:   Get him to the doctor as soon as possible.
 
5.  IF:   The person is overcome by breathing the gases of a fumigant.
 
    THEN:   ACT QUICKLY!
 
     *   Get the victim outdoors or to a room free of gas.
 
     *   Lay victim on the ground.
     
      *  Give artificial respiration if needed.
 
Call a doctor as soon as you can.   People using fumigants should have
kits which contain treatment for poisoning by the fumigant which is
being used.
 
IMPORTANT:  ALWAYS TRY TO GET THE VICTIM TO A DOCTOR QUICKLY.
 
            ALWAYS HAVE THE INSECTICIDE CONTAINER READY TO SHOW
            THE DOCTOR.  TREATMENT OFTEN DEPENDS UPON THE TYPE
            OF INSECTICIDE THAT POISONED THE PERSON.
2 Rodents
 
Rodents in many countries are healthy enough to provide a meat source for
humans.  In many cases, this is because they feed so well on the farmers'
grain.
 
Rodents damage crops in the fields and in storage.   They can eat a lot of
grain.  They make the stored grain dirty while they are eating it.  They
damage buildings, storage containers, and many other things on the farm.
 
Rodents also carry diseases which people can catch from eating and handling
grains the rodents have contaminated (made dirty).
 
There are many kinds of rodents, but rats and mice do the most damage to
stored grain.
 
STORED GRAIN RODENTS
 
<FIGURE 61>

51bp47.gif (437x437)


 
The type of rat and mouse
may differ depending upon
the country or the area.
But, in many parts of
the world, there are
three important rodents
which can be found moving
from house to fields to
storage looking for food,
water, and good living
conditions.  These three
are:
 
Rattus Norvegicus
 
Also called Sewer Rat, Norway Rat, Common Rat, or Brown Rat.  This is the
largest of the three.  The adult rat weighs about 330 grams and is very
strong.  It actively looks for grain in the field and in storage.  It also
burrows into and near farm buildings.   Called a brown rat, it may also be
black.  It has a blunt nose.
 
Rattus Rattus
 
Also called Roof Rat, Ship Rat, Black Rat, or Alexandrine Rat.  This rat
weighs about 250 grams when fully grown.   It has a long tail and a
pointed nose.  These rats can be brown, grey, black, or light brown.
These rats like to climb more than they like to dig.   They can climb
outer walls of concrete, perpendicular pipes, wires, and trees.  In
many areas, Rattus Rattus is the most dangerous stored grain rodent.
 
Mus Musculus
 
This is the well-known house mouse.   It weighs only 16 grams.   It has a
long tail and pointed nose.  Mice are usually brown-grey in color.  Most
farmers are so used to seeing mice around that they may not be aware of
the damage mice can cause until the mice have multiplied into great numbers.
Mice eat a lot of grain.  Also, because they usually eat only part of the
whole grain, mice ruin even more grain than they eat.
 
<FIGURE 62>

51bp48a.gif (437x437)


 
Rats and mice have big families.   Most of the young rodents die before
they are grown.  But the adults reproduce so quickly that it does not take
long for rats and mice to become a big problem for a farmer.
 
HABITS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF STORED GRAIN RODENTS
 
<FIGURE 63>

51bp48b.gif (353x353)


 
Fortunately, if the farmer understands
how rats and mice live, and if he knows
what rodents will and will not do, there
are many things he can do to fight rodents.
On the next page are some important
things to know about rodents:
 
* Rats and mice usually do the same things every day at the
  same time.   They are most active from sunset until about
  midnight.   They also move around at certain other hours
  during the day and night.  If grain is stored in a dark,
  cool place, they will go in at any time of day.
 
* Rodents always go the same way.   When a rodent is going
  from his nest to eat grain from storage, he always goes
  by the same path.  He chooses his paths so that he will
  be running beside walls or stacks.  He remains behind
  things (out of sight) as much as possible.  If the food
  is out in an open space, the rodent runs out, grabs it,
  and runs back to his path.
 
* Rodents stay away from new things.   If a farmer places
  food on a rodent path, some rodents will not eat it because
  it was not there before.  After it has been there for some
  time, and the rodent is used to seeing it, he will eat it.
 
* Rodents can climb.  Rats and mice can climb any straight
  up-and-down surface on which they can find places for their
  toenails.   Vines, drainpipes, and wires are good runways for
  rats and mice.   Rats can reach about 32cm up a wall and can
  do a standing jump of almost 60cm.  They can do a running
  jump as high as 90cm.  Even a mouse can do a running jump
  of 60cm.
 
* Rodents can swim.  They are not afraid of water.  They look
  for drains under water.  Piping systems underground are often
  travelled by rats.
 
* Some rats can dig.  Rats and mice live close to food and water.
  The roof rat likes to nest in ceilings, but the Norway rat digs
  under the ground.  Rats dig down along a wall.  If something
  blocks the digging, they stop.  They do not go around the
  thing which is in the way.
 
* Rodents must use their teeth.   The front teeth grow until the
  rodent dies.   The teeth will grow 10-12cm a year.   Rats must
  gnaw things all the time to keep wearing their teeth down.
 
* Rodents like some foods more than others.   Some of the foods
  they like are meat, grain, eggs, and potatoes.
 
* Rodents use their body hairs and whiskers to touch with.  They
  do not see as well as humans do, and they cannot see colors.
  They hear very well.  They can smell other rats; they can
  recognize certain rats by smelling the pathways and burrows.
 
* Rats and mice always can be found near man.   There have been
  large programs to kill rats and get them out of certain areas.
  But the rats always return.  It is not likely that a farmer
  will be able to free his farm of rats completely.  But he can
  and should control the numbers of rats and mice that live on
  his farm and eat his grain.
 
FINDING RODENTS ON THE FARM
 
A farmer must know where rats are before he can fight them.  And there are
things a farmer can look for which will tell him where rodents are living
and show him their pathways and homes.
 
Holes, Nests, and Burrows
 
Rodent holes are usually found outside houses and buildings.  These holes
also appear inside in soft foundations or earth floors.   To see if a hole
is being used all the time, the farmer can block it lightly with a piece
of earth.  If the earth has been moved, the farmer will know the hole is
being used.  Holes in use are free of dust and spider webs.  They look
used.
 
Mouse holes (2.5cm in diameter) are smaller than rat holes (7.5cm) and
also are found inside and outside.
 
Rodent nests also can be found outside and inside.   Outside, nexts are often
made of grass or leaves and are located near garbage and rubbish piles.
Inside, nests are made of paper, dry hay, straw, shredded cloth, and so on.
 
Norway rats like to live in the ground.   Their burrows (underground nests)
can be found along the outside walls of buildings and in dirt basements.
Some of the burrows are away from buildings in brush, bushes, and piles
of dirt.  Often these burrows are joined under the ground.
 
Runways and Smears
 
Rodents use the same paths.  So, after a number of days of using the same
path outside, rats make trails in the grass.   Search for these paths in
areas where the running rat would feel most protected.   On dirt, the runway
may appear as a clean-swept bath 5.7.5cm wide.
 
Sometimes a runway which is used often is marked by a greasy smear from the
oil and the dirt that rats and mice have on their bodies.  Check for these
smears around gnawed holes, along pipes, on edges of stairs, along walls
or other places a rodent might run.
 
Mouse runways are harder to find because they are smaller.
 
Footprints and Tail Marks
 
These are found when rodents have been running over dusty or wet places.
Some farmers will find tracks on the surface of grain sacks.  Rat tracks
are large:  the back foot of the Norway rat can leave a print 37mm long.
Mouse footprints are much smaller and harder to find.
 
Droppings
 
<FIGURE 64>

51bp51a.gif (437x437)


 
Each kind of rodent drops a different shape of feces from his body.  The
farmer should check for droppings near runways, holes, corners, food, and
other places he feels rodents would go.
 
New droppings often are shiny and wet-looking.   The color is usually black,
but changes depending upon what the animal eats.   The number of the droppings
can give some idea of how many rodents are eating the grain.  It is wise
for the farmer to think in terms of more rodents than droppings.  Some
droppings may be eaten by insects, and some rodents will run by without
leaving droppings.
 
Damage and Gnaw Marks
 
<FIGURE 65>

51bp51b.gif (437x437)


 
Rats and mice must use their teeth all the time.
The farmer should check for gnaw marks on his
buildings and produce.  Also, if he stores in
sacks, he must check the center of his sacked
storage.
 
Smell
 
Rats and mice leave a smell in the room and in the grain.  It is a very
obvious sign that rodents are present.
 
CONTROLLING RODENTS WITHOUT USING POISON
 
Rats and mice need food, water, and places to hide.   Rodents usually choose
to live where these things are available close together.  They do not
like to travel far from home to find food and water.   They like to live
beneath wooden floors near chicken houses, barns, granaries, corn-cribs.
They live in piles of wood, lumber, and trash, and in straw hay.  Rodents
need room to grow undisturbed.
 
Farmers who use their knowledge of rodents' habits and characteristics can
fight rodents by not giving them food, water, and places to live.  Keeping
cats and dogs to chase and kill rodents will help, but not enough.
 
<FIGURE 66>

51bp52a.gif (437x437)


 
The three most important things farmers can do to control rats and mice
without using poison are to keep the stored grain area clean; to rodent-proof
houses, storage bins, and sheds so that rodents cannot get into them;
and to set out traps.
 
Keep the Farm and Storage Area as Clean as Possible
 
<FIGURE 67>

51bp52b.gif (437x437)


   
     * Do not pile food or trash around the outside
       or inside of farm buildings.
     
     * Bury or burn all garbage and old food away
       from the house or storage place.
    
     * Place all food items in covered containers.
 
     * Store grain sacks off the floor.
 
     * Sweep out all dirt, dust, straw, old
       cloth that rodents might nest and
       hide in.
 
     * Cover dirt floors with a thin layer of  
       mortar, if possible.  This keeps rats
       from digging up through the floors.
     
     * Keep the grass cut short around all
       farm buildings.  Rodents like to
       hide in tall grasses.
 
     * Cut any tree limbs which touch windows
       to keep rats from climbing the trees
       and jumping in through the windows.
 
Rodent-Proofing
 
This simply means the farmer must store his grain so that the rats and
mice either cannot get in or have to work very hard to do so.
    
     * Construct granaries of mud.  Farmers in some areas have found
       these are not attacked by rodents too much, especially when
       they are built off the ground.  In other words, storing grain
       above the ground helps keep rodents away.
       Place cribs for grain storage, such as the
       one described in this manual, at least 75cm
       above the ground -- because rats can jump.
       Put barriers on the legs of the cribs so
       that the rodents can not climb the legs.
       These barriers are called rat baffles or
       rat guards.  Baffles can be made from tin
       cans.   The instructions for making these
       baffles are on a separate page at the end   
       of this section.
 
<FIGURE 68>

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     * Never place a bicycle or other piece of equipment against
       storage places.  Rodents use such items as ladders to climb
       into the stored grain.     
 
<FIGURE 69>

51bp53b.gif (437x437)


 
     * Build storage buildings or containers on a
       concrete base at least 50cm high.  The
       floor should be concrete.  If the bin is
       made of tin sheet, the sheet should be
       fixed in concrete.  Farmers should place
       sheet metal bands around mud or cement
       silos to prevent rodents from climbing.
       Some mudblock constructions use fired
       bricks at the bottom levels because
       rodents cannot gnaw through them.
 
     * Make sure doors and grain chutes fit tightly.  A wooden door
       should have a thick metal sheet along the bottom to stop
       rodents from eating through.  Grain chutes sometimes are
       packed with mud.
 
     * Cover all windows and large openings with heavy wire netting.
       Wire netting with an 8mm mesh is a good size.  Holes in a
       roof made of corrugated tin should be filled with cement
       mortar.
 
     * Cover the ends of any pipes which enter the building where
       grain is stored with wire netting.
     
Setting Traps for Rats and Mice
 
Traps can be very effective if correctly placed and used.  They need to
be regularly maintained.  They may be used where poison is hard to get.
Also, traps are much safer to use very near stored grains in houses and
storage buildings.  Rodents run out, get food, and carry it back to
where they are going to eat it.   They walk over the poison and pick it
up on their feet and bodies.   Then they walk over grain or food and so
put poison on it.  So, for a small farmer whose grain is not well-covered,
traps may be a better way to fight rodents.
 
Farmers in many parts of the world already use traps of different kinds.
One method is to hang a maize cob over a five-gallon tin of water.  The
maize cob swings freely.  When the rat reaches for it, he loses his balance,
falls into the water and drowns.
 
This trap works if the number of rodents is not too great.  A small-scale
farmer can easily put several water traps around his storage area.
The best traps consist of a base, a spring and trigger and heavy wire.  The
heavy wire is bent back and held by a spring.   The spring is released when
a rodent steps on the trigger.   The wire snaps  down on the rodent.  These
traps can be made, but it usually requires too much time to make enough
traps.
 
On the other hand, traps can be expensive if a farmer needs many of them.
The number of traps he needs depends upon whether he is seeking to control
rodents in his grain fields, in his storage area, in his home, or in all
these places.  He can protect his grain best by controlling rodents at all
these points.  So a farmer has to figure the number and kind of traps he
needs.  There are a number of kinds available:
 
Snap Traps (Also Called Wood Traps or Breakback Traps).   These have a flat
wooden base.  They kill with a heavy wire which is pulled back by a spring.
When a rat or mouse touches the trigger, the wire comes down over the rat,
breaking its back,
 
<FIGURE 70>

51bp54.gif (437x437)


 
Snap traps come in a number of sizes.   The trap for a rat should be about
9 x 22cm.  The traps for mice need to be only 5 x 10cm.  Some farmers
place pieces of food (bait) in these traps to attract mice and rats.
 
Putting food in the traps is not necessary if the farmer places the trap
in a rat runway.
 
Steel Traps.  These traps have a base with a trigger and two steel jaws.
When a rat steps on the platform and releases the trigger, the jaws snap
together.  A steel trap with 9cm jaws is good for rats.  The problem with
steel traps is that rats usually do not die, but are caught.  This means
the farmer must kill the rat himself.
 
<FIGURE 71>

51bp55.gif (437x437)


 
Tunnel, Box, and Cage Traps.   These do not use bait.  They are placed in
runways and other places where the rats and mice go.   Only rats and mice
can enter these traps.  And they cannot get out.
 
After the farmer has an idea of how many of which traps he needs, he must
figure the cost of traps.  Points he should consider:
 
     * Buying the traps requires money.  How much would it cost
       to buy all the traps?
 
     * Traps can be used over again.
 
     * Traps can be repaired and do not have to be replaced
       often.
 
     * It takes time to bait, set, empty, and re-set traps.
       And this must be done often, especially if the trap has
       food in it.  Rodents do not like old or moldy food.
       Doing all this takes a lot of time.
     
     * How much would it cost to put poison out instead of traps?
       Are the right poisons available?  Putting out poison requires
       making special boxes to hold the poison, buying
       the poison, setting it out, etc.  Would it be cheaper to
       use poison?   Would it be easier?
     
     * If there are a lot of rodents to control, would it be
       cheaper for the farmer to use a combination of traps and
       poison?   Traps could be placed in areas, such as the house,
       where poisons are not a good idea.  Poison could be used
       in the fields and other areas where rodents are appearing
       in great numbers.  After many rats are poisoned, traps
       can be set to provide continuing control.
 
If traps are to be part of the farmer's rodent control program, there are
certain things he must know about traps:
 
Size and Condition of the Trap
     
     * Mice can take the food from a rat trap without getting
       caught.   It is important to place mouse-size traps where
       there are signs of mice and rat-size traps where rats are
       running.
 
       Snap traps can be used without bait if the platform or
       base is made larger so that the rat releases the trigger
       by simply stepping on the platform.
 
<FIGURE 72>

51bp56a.gif (437x437)


       
       Make the trap bigger by fastening a 4cm-square piece of
       thin metal, screen, or cardboard to the trigger of
       the bait holder.
 
     * Traps should be kept clean, so they will work well.
        
     * If a lot of bait is being taken, and rats and mice are
       not being caught, the trap probably needs fixing.
       Check for bent or rusted triggers, weak springs, or
       loose wires.
 
Baiting the Traps
 
Snap traps often are used with bait to encourage the rat to come to
the trap.
   
* Bait may be any food rats like to eat.
 
* Use a piece of food about the size of the end of a man's
  finger.
 
* Make sure the bait is fastened down very well.   If the
  bait is not held down well, the rat will steal the bait
  and run away.
 
* Food baits should be changed every three days.   Rats do
  not like old food.  Change from one kind of bait to
  another.
 
Placing the Traps
 
<FIGURE 73>

51bp56b.gif (437x437)


Here is where the knowledge of rodent habits becomes very useful.
Farmers will usually catch most rodents the first night.  Therefore,
put out enough traps. Not every trap will catch a rat;
the farmer should expect this.   The farmer should:
 
* Place baited traps very near the rodent runways he has
  found.
 
* Place traps near the walls at right angles to the wall.
  The trigger end should be nearest the wall so that the
  trap will attract a rodent running from either direction.
 
* Cover the traps with straw, dust,or other material which
  hides all of the trap except for the bait. This is done
  only when there is no danger that people and animals
  will step on the trap.
 
* Set the base of the trap right into the floor if the floor
  is dirt.
 
* Place baited traps near holes, nests, and burrows. If the
  area is one where people or animals are likely to go, the
  farmer should put a cover over the trap so that it will
  be available to nothing but rats and mice.
 
* Place unbaited traps or expanded-trigger traps right in
  the rodent runways. Boards or boxes can be placed beside
  and behind the traps to guide rodents into them. Traps
  are also placed in burrows, hole openings, and corners.
  For roof rats and mice, also place traps on shelves,
  beams, pipes, and other high places
 
Many farmers will decide that the best control program for them
will use all of the methods discussed above, plus poison, to kill
the rodents.
 
<FIGURE 74>

51bp57.gif (353x353)


 
CONTROLLING RATS WITH POISON
 
Using poisons to control rodents is cheap,
in most places, and effective.
 
BUT RODENTICIDES (POISONS WHICH KILL RATS
AND MICE) CAN POISON HUMANS AND OTHER
ANIMALS AS WELL.  IT IS VERY IMPORTANTS
THEREFORE, THAT FARMERS KNOW WHICH
POISONS TO USE AND HOW TO USE THEM.
 
There are two kinds of poison used for
killing rodents: acute poisons and
anticoagulant poisons.
 
Acute Poisons
 
These are also called single-dose poisons.   Rodents need to eat only a
few mouthfuls of this poison. Death occurs quickly -- usually within a
half hour.
 
The most common of the acute poisons are zinc phosphide, arsenious oxide,
and sodium fluoroacetate (also called 1080).   Some tropical countries are
also using thallium sulphate, yellow phosphorous, aluminum phosphide,
calcium cyanide, strychnine, Norbomide, Eastrix, and   Antu.  Some of
these are only good for mice, some for rats.   This manual discusses only
some of the most common poisons effective against grain storage rodents.
If one of the other poisons mentioned is being made available to farmers
in your area, you might prepare information sheets on the proper use of
that poison -- such as the ones attached to the end of this section.
 
Anticoagulant Poisons
 
These poisons must be eaten by rodents for a number of days before death
occurs. They are used at a low dosage. In other words, there is only a
little mixed in with the food each day. These poisons cause rodents to
bleed inside their bodies and die.
 
<FIGURE 75>

51bp58.gif (437x437)


 
The best known anticoagulant poison is Warfarin. Others are Coumatetralyl
(Racumin), Chlorophacinone, Pival, Fumarin, PMP, Diphacinone, Rodafarin
(India).
 
Choosing a Poison
 
The kind of rodent is important when choosing a poison. What kills one
kind of rat may not kill another kind. The farmer should be able to
recognize which types of rodent are attacking his stored grain. There
are some poisons which can kill a number of types. Each of the major ones
mentioned in this manual will control Norway rats, roof rats, and mice.
 
The farmer has to decide whether to use an acute poison or an anticoagulant.
Acute poisons kill more rodents and kill them quickly.   But
many of the rodents will not feed.   And these rodents will not eat the
poison bait that killed the other rodents if the bait is left in the
same places. Acute poisons are also more dangerous for farmers to use.
 
<FIGURE 76>

51bp59a.gif (393x393)


 
Anticoagulants are added to food and the rat must eat the food for about
5 days at a time.  These poisons have no taste and no smell.   The rodents
do not know they are being poisoned, and this is an advantage. They
continue to eat the poisoned food.   It takes a lot of poison, a lot of
bait, and a lot of time to use anticoagulants well.   This may be a disadvantage
for some farmers.  But anticoagulants are much safer for farmers
to use.  And safety is an important factor to weigh when using poison.
 
Preparing Bait
 
Poison is mixed with foods rodents like (bait).
The bait and poison mixture must look good to
rodents so that they will eat the poisoned
bait instead of the stored grain.
 
<FIGURE 77>

51bp59b.gif (317x317)


 
A cereal bait often is used. Cereals for bait must be kept free of
insects. The cereal should be in fine- or medium-size pieces. Warfarin
is usually used at 0.005% to 0.05% (the amount of Warfarin contained in
the bait mixture). Above 0.05% the rats can taste the poison and will
not eat the bait.
 
<FIGURE 78>

51bp59c.gif (317x317)


 
Anticoagulant poisons are often sold in master mix form.  This master
mix includes an ingredient which helps the poison mix in better with
the bait.
 
Here are directions for mixing baits:
 
Dry Anticoagulant Baits.  To make 10kgs of Warfarin or Coumatetralyl ready-to-use
bait:
 
  * Mix 9.5kg of dry ground meal (19 parts by weight) of oats,
    wheat, or any cereal grain with 0.5kg of master mix (1 part
    by weight).
 
Oily Anticoagulant Baits.  These baits are used instead of dry baits in
wet places, add in places where the bait will stay for some time.  The
cereal does not have to be as fine as for dry bait.   Rats like the bait
when it has sugar, molasses, or some sweet food in it.
 
  * Mix (by weight):  17 parts cereal
                       1 part sugar
                       1 part Warfarin Master Mix
 
  * Stir well, so all dry ingredients are mixed.
 
  * Add one part (by weight) oil -- liquid paraffin or
                                    white oil.
 
  * Stir until the bait is evenly mixed.
 
  * This makes a total mixture of 19 parts of bait (cereal,
    sugar, and oil) to 1 part of poison.  If rodents still
    prefer to eat the stored grain, change from oily bait
    to damp bait.
 
Damp Bait.  Rodents like damp baits, but these baits dry out quickly.
amp baits are usually used with acute poisons.   There are several ways
of making damp bait:
 
   1.   [/I]Wet Cereal.   Soak cereal grains overnight (wheat, sorghum,
       etc.) in water.  Drain the water off just before use.
       Add correct amount of poison.  The directions for the
       amount of poison are given on the containers.  IF THERE
       ARE NO DIRECTIONS FOR USE, DO NOT USE THE POISON.
 
   2.   [/I]Damp, Coarse Cereal.   Soak (by weight) 2 parts cereal
       in 1 part water for 1 hour.  Stir several times.  Add
       poison and use.
 
   3.   [/I]Bread Mash.   Soak old bread in water.  Drain off extra
       water.   Pound wet bread to a paste.   Mix in poison and
       use.
 
Liquid Bait.  These are useful in dry situations.  Rats living in stored
grain areas have to go looking for water.   Other sources of water should
be removed as much as possible.   Liquid baits then are placed as drinking
 
<FIGURE 79>

51bp60a.gif (393x393)


 
Liquid baits are simply poisons dissolved in water.
They may be acute or anticoagulant types of poison.
Sodium fluoroacetate, Warfarin, and Pival all are
used in making liquid baits.
 
Liquid baits, however, lose their power in two or
three days i n warm weather.
 
Placing Baits
 
<FIGURE 80>

51bp60b.gif (317x317)


 
There must be plenty of bait stations
Bait must be placed in runways, near
holes, burrows, and nests. Farmers
should remember when placing bait
that rodents stay close to home.   Rats
usually travel in an area of About
[45m.sup.2]and mice stay within a [9m.sup.2] area.
 
Placing Acute Poisons.  Here is one method:
 
  * Prepare 10cm x 10cm square papers, banana leaves, or like
    material.
 
  * Place poisoned food in the middle at one end.
 
  * Roll up the paper and twist the ends.
 
  * One pound of bait makes 80 or 90 doses.
 
  * Throw the paper packets into places where it is impossible
    to place traps -- into holes and burrows, between walls,
    etc.
 
    NEVER PLACE THESE PACKETS WHERE CHILDREN AND PETS CAN GET
    THEM.
 
Another method of placing bait:
 
  * Cover the floor with small pieces or teaspoonsful of bait
    containing an acute poison.
 
  * Collect and destroy the bait after 24 hours. Do not recommend
    this method to farmers who do not have separate grain
    storage buildings: it is far too dangerous to leave poison
    bait sitting around on the floors and grounds belonging
    to a small farmer.
 
Placing Anticoagulant Poisons.   These poisons are probably the best ones
for you to recommend to farmers.   They must be used carefully. But they
are relatively easy to use.
 
It is important to keep enough bait out for a long enough period of time.
Keep bait out at least two weeks. Each pile of bait should be 200-250cm,
and each should be laid in the places where signs of rodents have been found.
 
       Place the bait in empty shallow tins, on ends cut off from
       tin cans, in pipes and pieces of bamboo.  The bait can be
       placed directly on the ground, but it may get wet and moldy.
 
<FIGURE 81>

51bp61.gif (353x353)


 
<FIGURE 82>

51bp62a.gif (317x317)


 
  * Construct bait boxes and use them
    and boards, pipes, or cans in
    certain places to hide the bait
    from other animals to  keep
    baits from getting wet.
 
  * Put the bait in places where signs
    of rodents have been found.
 
  * Check the bait stations every day to make sure there is
    enough bait.
 
  * Smooth the bait so that next time he checks he will be able
    to see signs of feeding.
 
  * Change moldy or insect-infested baits for new ones.
 
  * Move the bait station to another place if the bait is
    not being eaten.
 
<FIGURE 83>

51bp62b.gif (285x285)


 
Other materials on rodent control follow:
 
  * Information sheets on major rodent poisons. Use these as
    guides to preparing materials for use with rodenticides
    available in your area.
 
  * Instruction sheet for making rat baffles.
 
  * Scripts for a series of illustrated leaflets on rat control,
    including an example of how an artist can turn these
    scripts into very effective information through use
    of illustrations.
 
                        WARFARIN
 
<FIGURE 84>

51bp63.gif (317x317)


 
TYPE:             Anticoagulant rat poison.
 
FORMULATIONS:     * Ready-to-use bait.
 
                  * Powder concentrate.  The Total of Warfarin
                    in the concentrate is only 0.5% of the
                    whole.  Mix 1 part of the powder concentrate
                    to 19 parts of bait.  This gives a bait
                    which contains 0.025% Warfarin.
 
                  * Powders to dissolve in water.  This makes
                    a liquid for use as poisoned drinking
                    water or making wet bait.
 
                  * Dusts.  These contain 1% Warfarin.   This
                    can be sprinkled on surfaces where rats
                    run.
 
                  * Wax rat blocks.  These are blocks of wheat
                    held together by wax.  The poison is mixed
                    in the wheat.   The block is placed where rats
                    will nibble at it.
 
These formulations are easy to use. But they should be used with great
care.
 
WARNING:         ALL POISONS ARE DANGEROUS!!
 
                 * Follow directions for use given on the poison
                   container.
 
                 * Do not eat, drink, or smoke when using poison.
                   Wash your hands very well after using poison.
 
                * Put poison containers away out of the reach of
                  children.
 
NOTE:   If someone swallows Warfarin, make him vomit.  To make someone
        vomit--stick your fingers down his throat or make him drink
        warm water with salt in it.  Vomiting empties the stomach.  Get
        the poisoned person to a doctor as soon as you can.
 
                      COUMATETRALYL
 
OTHER NAMES:     Racumin
 
TYPE:            Anticoagulant rat poison.
 
FORMULATION:     * Ready-to-use bait (0.05%).
 
                 * Mix containing 0.75.  Dilute 1 part mix
                   to 19 parts of bait.  Final concentrate 0.37%.
 
                 * Dust (0.75%).  Place on surfaces where rats
                   run.
 
USES:            Uses as you would use Warfarin.
 
WARNING:         ALL POISONS ARE DANGEROUS.
 
                 *  If you are not sure which poison to use,
                    ask someone who knows how to use poisons
                    correctly.
 
                 * Read all direction carefully.
 
                 * Do not eat, drink, or smoke when handling
                   poison.
 
<FIGURE 85>

51bp64a.gif (353x353)


 
<FIGURE 86>

51bp64b.gif (285x285)


 
                        CHLOROPHACINONE
 
OTHER NAMES:
 
TYPE:             Anticoagulant poison.
 
FORMULATION:      * Ready-to-use bait (0.005%).
 
                  * Mix in oil (0.25%).  Dilute 1 part to 49 parts
                   to 19 of bait.  Concentrate should be (0.005%).
 
                  * Dusts.  These contain 2% Chlorophacinone.
                    These can be sprinkled into holes and runways
                    used by rats.  Dusts should be sprinkled for
                    20 days.
 
WARNING:          ALL POISONS ARE DANGEROUS.
 
                  * If you are not sure which poison to use,
                    ask someone who knows how to use poisons
                    correctly.
 
                  * Read all directions carefully.
 
                  * Do not eat, drink, or smoke while using
                    poisons.
 
                  * Never use these formulations near food.
 
  KEEP AWAY FROM CHILDREN                         WASH YOUR HANDS AFTER
                                                     USING POISON
 
                    SODIUM MONOFLUOROACETATE
 
OTHER NAMES:       Compound 1080
 
TYPE:              Acute Rat Poison
 
FORMULATIONS:      Must be used as a liquid.  When using the liquid,,
                   you must obey all the safety rules for handling
                   poison.
 
WARNING:           VERY DANGEROUS TO MAN.  THERE IS NO ANTIDOTE TO
                   THIS POISON.
 
                   * Men and animals can be killed or made sick by
                     eating rats that have eaten this poison.   The
                     powder form causes immediate death in humans
                     who breathe it.  NEVER EVEN OPEN A CONTAINER
                     OF THE POWDER.
 
                   * Do not get the poison on your clothes or your
                     body.  If you do, wash with a lot of running
                     water.
                  
                   *  Keep it away from other people and animals.
 
                   *  Burn or bury all the tools and containers used
                      to mix and hold the poison.  If buried, keep away
                      from underground water sources.
 
                   * USE RUBBER GLOVES AND WASH YOUR HANDS CAREFULLY
                     AFTER MIXING THE POISON.
                           RAT BAFFLES
 
<FIGURE 87>

51bp67.gif (353x353)


 
Materials and Equipment
 
  *   1 flat tin sheet (30 gauge, 0.9 x 2m)
 
     1 pair tin shears or sharp chisel
 
     1 hammer
 
     Chalk, charcoal, or large nail for drawing baffles on tin sheet
 
     25, 4-6cm nails (You will need 5 nails for each baffle)
 
Baffles should be about 50cm in diameter at the narrow end.  The size
will vary with the size of the leg which the baffle must fit.
 
     * Mark out baffles on tin sheet with chalk or charcoal before
       cutting them out.
 
     * Cut out along the outside edges.  Do not cut the middle yet.
     
     * Start with the thinnest leg first.  Cut out the hole in the
       middle of the baffle little by little.  The baffle must fit
       tightly to keep even the smallest rodent from climbing
       between the baffle and the leg.  If the hole in the baffle
       gets too big for this leg, use it on a fatter leg.
 
     * Nail the baffle tightly to a wooden leg.  Use cement mortar
       to fasten the baffle to a concrete leg.
 
     * Cut out and fit all the baffles in the same way.
 
     * Make wooden legs round, if they are not round already.  Cut
       the middle hole of the baffle to fit a concrete leg which
       is not round.
 
NOTE:  You can use whatever thin metal is available.  Old tin cans can
       be cut and flattened.
 
Below is a pattern for a rat guard to be cut from a piece of tin or a
flattened tin can.  This piece is cut out and bent to form a cone with
a hole in the center.  It is fastened around the leg of the crib or
storage building and attached to the leg with nails or wire.
 
<FIGURE 88>

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RAT CONTROL SERIES
 
SUGGESTED USES:  This series of scripts is a short version of the material
in the rodent section.  The scripts could be used as part of a campaign
to alert farmers to the damage rodents do, and to the steps which can be
taken to control rodents.
 
The scripts have been prepared in some detail; you can choose the points
which best fit the situation in your area.   The points can be translated
and pictured quite easily.  The illustrated material which follows these
scripts shows how VITA artist Kenneth Lloyd has used pictures to explain
many facts about rodents.
 
                                SCRIPT # 1
 
                           RODENTS ARE EVERYWHERE
 
*  Rats live in your houses.
 
*  Rats live in your fields.
 
*  Rats eat holes in your buildings.
 
*  Rats eat food in your houses.
 
*  Rats eat grain in your storage places.
 
*  Rats make your food and grain dirty.  They put droppings from their
   bodies on the grain while they are eating it.
 
*  Rats bring sickness.  They can bring diseases which make people die.
   They can even kill sleeping babies.
 
*  Rats like to live in storage places.
 
*  Rats eat a lot of your grain everyday.  There is less grain for you
   to sell and eat.
 
*  You must keep rats out of your fields.  You must keep rats out of your
   house.   You must keep rats out of your stored grain.
 
*  Your extension worker can tell you how to keep rats away from your farm.
 
*  Remember:   Rats bring sickness to you and your family.
              Rats steal food and grain.
              Rats make your grain dirty.
 
                                SCRIPT # 2
 
                             KNOW ABOUT RATS
 
*  You must know what rats can do before you can fight them.
 
*  Rats move fast.  They are fast and quiet.
 
*  Rats have sharp teeth.  They can make holes in wooden walls and trees.
 
*  Rats can climb and jump.
 
*  Rats can crawl on ropes and wires.
 
*  Rat can swim.   They are not afraid of water.
 
*  Rats are smart.  They can stay away from traps.
 
*  Rats have large families.  One pair of rats can make a family of more
   than 1,000 rats in a year.
 
*  Rats build nests in quiet, dark places.  They make nests using straw,
   feathers, paper, and other pieces of trash.
 
*  Rats hide around homes and storage places.  Rats like to live near
   food.
 
*  Some rats live under the ground.  They like to live near grain growing
   in the field.
 
*  Rats like to eat at night.  Rats move around at night.
 
*  Rats use the same road every time they make a trip.
 
*  Rats find many places to hide on a farm.  You must look carefully to
   find them.
 
*  Look for nests.
 
*  Look for trails.  Rats pack down the plants in places because they always
   use the same road.
 
*  Look for droppings.  New droppings are shiny and black.  Old droppings
   are gray.
 
*  Look for chewed holes in wooden walls.
 
*  Look for dirty, greasy marks at the bottom of walls and doors.
 
*  Listen at night.  Sometimes you can hear rats moving in the roof,
   cooking place, or grain storage place.
 
*  Now you know where the rats are.  Now you can get the rats away.
 
*  Your extension worker can give you information on how to get rats
   away from your farm.
 
                           SCRIPT # 3
 
                 FIGHTING RATS WITHOUT POISON
 
*  Rats must have food and water to live.
 
*  Rats like dirty places.
 
*  Keep your home and grain storage places CLEAN.
 
*  Make sure rats do not get food.
 
*  Put old food into a covered container if you want to use it later.
   Do not leave food on tables or shelves.
 
*  Feed old food to the pigs and chickens right away.
 
*  Bury garbage.   Or burn garbage.   Or compost garbage.
 
*  Clean around the outside of buildings.  Do not leave piles of garbage,
   rags, paper, leaves, and cans.  Rats like to hide in these things.
 
*  Keep grass cut short.
 
*  Cut tree branches that grow near your home and grain storage area.
   Remember rats can jump.  They can jump from the tree to the building.
 
*  Make sure rats cannot get under the door of your home or storage area.
 
*  Put strips of metal along the bottom of doors.  Rats cannot bite through
   metal.
 
*  Close all holes in wooden buildings with metal sheets or flattened tin
   cans.
 
*  Fill holes in plaster, brick, or mud walls.
 
*  Use rock or concrete floors.  Rats can come up through the ground into
   the storage area.
 
*  Store grain in covered containers.  Place containers off the ground.
 
*  Put metal bands around the bottom or legs of grain containers.  This
   keeps rats from climbing up to the top.
 
*  Keep a cat or dog.  Train the animal to chase and kill rats.
 
*  You may have to use rat poison also.  Contact your extension worker.
   Do not use poison before you talk to the extension worker.  POISON
   IS DANGEROUS.
 
                          SCRIPT # 4
 
                   FIGHTING RATS WITH POISON
 
*  Clean your grain storage areas.
 
*  Close and rat-proof all holes in buildings.
 
*  Protect the storage containers and building with metal.  This
   stops new rats from coming in.
 
*  Use poison and traps to kill any rats that are left.
 
*  Talk to your extension worker before you use poison.  The extension
   agent will know which poison to use.  He will know how to use the
   poison.   He will know where you can get the poison.
 
*  Remember that some rat poisons can kill other animals and people.
 
*  One poison kills rats quickly.  You can kill many rats at one time.
 
*  Soon rats will not eat this poison.  They know this poison kills.
 
*  Then you can use another kind of poison.  Rats must eat this poison for
   3 days or so before they die.  Rats do not know they are dying.  So
   they will keep eating the poison.
 
*  Some poison is already mixed with food rats like to eat.
 
*  Food that rats like to eat is called bait.  Bait can be rice, corn meal,
   bread.
 
*  You can mix this bait with poison yourself.  Ask your extension worker
   how much poison to mix with the bait.
 
*  Add some corn oil, coconut oil, sugar or molasses to the bait and
   poison.   Rats like the taste very much.
 
*  Try not to touch the poison.  Wash your hands when you finish mixing.
 
*  Now make boxes and containers to put the bait in.  These boxes and containers
   let the rats in.  Other animals and children can not get into
   these boxes and containers.
 
*  There are different kinds of bait boxes and containers.
 
*  You can put bait in pipes made of bamboo or metal.
 
*  Put bait in tin cans.
 
*  Put bait in small dishes made out of bamboo or tin cans.  Put dishes
   inside the bait boxes or bait containers.
 
*  Put bait containers close to walls and doorways in your storage area.
 
*  Put poison containers near places where rats run.
 
*  Make bait containers to put in your fields.
 
*  Put these containers near trails and rat holes.
 
*  Poison field rats before the grain is ready.  Rats will not eat poison
   if they can eat grain.
 
*  Check all bait containers very often.  The poison bait must not get
   too old.   Rats will not eat old bait.
 
*  Remember:   Check with your extension agent for help with poison.
              Read the words on the poison box or jar.
              Wash your hands after you mix the bait with poison.
              Keep all poison away from food, animals, and people.
 
                             SCRIPT # 5
 
                        FIGHTING RATS WITH TRAPS
 
*  Your extension worker can tell you which traps to use.  He can tell
   you how to use them.
 
*  It is good to use traps in places where children might go.  Poison
   is too dangerous.
 
*  Show your family where you are putting the traps.
 
*  Show your family how the traps work.  Traps can hurt people.
 
*  You must put food that rats like in the trap.  Try different kinds
   until you find a good bait.  Try pieces of meat, dried fish, bread.
 
*  Put traps near food places.  Put traps on top of stored grain.  Do not
   use rat poison in these places.
 
*  Tie the traps down.  Sometimes rats run away with traps.  The traps
   just catch the rats' noses.
 
*  Put traps near rat trails, rat footprints, rat holes.
 
*  Move the traps around every few days.
 
*  Check the traps every day.  Make sure the bait is still there.
 
*  Do not touch dead rats.  Rats carry disease and sickness.
 
*  Use a stick or shovel to get the rat out of the trap.
 
*  Burn dead rats.
 
*  Wash traps before using them again.  Wash your hands.
 
*  Remember:   Ask your extension worker about traps and how to use them.
              Traps can hurt people and animals.  Use them carefully.
              Do not let children play with traps.
              Use traps near food and grain.  Never use poison in these places.
 
<FIGURE 89>

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<FIGURE 90>
 
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<FIGURE 99>
 
<FIGURE 100>
                         Appendix A
 
The following material is taken from Guidelines for the Use of
Insectidides, published by the
 
                  Agricultural Research Services
                     and Forest Service of the
              United States Department of Agriculture
 
The section of the Guidelines included here contains information on
applying insectidides with sprayers and power dusters, safety precautions,
and protection of wildlife from insecticides.   The section
of this book pertaining to insecticide dosages, formulations, and
applications for use with stored grain is included in its entirety.  This
information is included because it is often hard for development workers
to get such complete information.
 
The entire publication includes insect control for crops, livestock,
households, forests, and forest products.
 
                    OTHER MEANS OF INSECT CONTROL
 
   In addition to the use of insecticides, there are a number of other ways to
control or to help control injurious insects.   Natural controls, such as
parasites, predators, diseases, and adverse weather conditions, are continually
at work.  Often they reduce populations of injurious insects and keep them at
levels that are not economically damaging.   Also, good sanitation and
housekeeping are essential for the effective control of house flies, stable flies,
cockroaches, fleas and stored-product insects, even when these practices are
supplemented by chemical controls.   Cultural practices and mechanical devices
aid materially in the control of the pink bollworm, boll weevil, tobacco
hornworm, white pine weevil, and certain bark beetles.   Crop varieties
resistant to insects have been developed and are available to avoid or reduce
damage by such insects as the hessian fly, wheat stem sawfly, spotted alfalfa
aphid, and the European corn borer.
 
   When harvested products are subjected to heat or extreme cold in storage,
insect infestations are often destroyed or inhibited.   Insect-free commodities
can be protected by insect-resistant packaging and sanitation in storage and in
marketing channels.
 
 
   More satisfactory control of insect pests may frequently be obtained by
carefully integrating the use of insecticides or fumigants with biological
control agents and other nonchemical measures.   This approach to insect
control is most effective when the total population of the insect is attacked
on a continuous basis (compared with treatment of seasonal infestations in
individual fields).  Often when such integrated control is practiced, insecticides
are needed only to supplement the other control measures.  However,
for this method, all means of control of a pest insect must be considered to
coordinate them to the greatest advantage and with the least harmful effect
on other living organisms in the environment.   Consult your State agricultural
experiment station for the latest information.   Do not use insecticides or
fumigants unless they are needed.
 
                         APPLICATION OF INSECTICIDES
 
   The key to effective use of an insecticide without injury to the treated
plant, animal, or agricultural product is to follow directions on the label.  Do
not use any insecticide preparation for any purpose for which it is not
specified.  Most oil sprays prepared for application to walls of buildings will
injure living plants or animals.   Insecticide concentrates prepared for application
to plants may injure or kill treated animals or result in illegal residues in
animal tissues or byproducts.
 
   Only general information can be given here on the effective application of
insecticides since much depends on the habits of the insect pest, the kind of
damage that it causes, the nature and condition of the infested plants,
animals, or commodities to be treated, weather conditions, and application
equipment, as well as the type and formulation of the insecticide to be
applied.  For information to meet special needs, consult your State agricultural
experiment station.
 
Weather Conditions
 
   Wind, rain, and sun play an important part in the control you get from
outdoor use of insecticides.   Keep an eye on the weather.  Local weather
reports may be helpful in planning insecticide applications.  Before you start
to treat, watch the tops of trees or use other means to determine the
direction and the amount of wind.   Some air movement is helpful.  Winds,
however, can cause an insecticide dust or spray to be unevenly distributed on
the plants and to drift away from target areas.
 
   If rain is predicted, postpone treatment, if possible.  Rain falling soon after
you treat may reduce the effectiveness of an insecticide deposit.  Cold weather
may have the same effect.  Some insecticides must be applied at temperatures
above 50 [degrees] F. to be effective.
 
   Extremes in weather during or following the spraying of fruit trees may
lead to fruit or foliage injury.   Russeting of fruit may be increased by pesticide
sprays if they are applied at night or during cool, rainy, or humid weather.
Emulsifiable materials are more likely to cause injury than are wettable
powders.
 
   High wind and low temperature make control of insects by fumigation
difficult.  High winds may reduce gas concentration even in well-sealed
warehouses.  Insects are difficult to kill by fumigation at temperatures below
60 [degrees] F.
 
                              PRECAUTIONS
 
   The following safeguards are to protect handlers of insecticides and treated
objects, consumers of treated crops and animals, honey bees, fish, wildlife,
domestic animals, fish pools, bird baths, creeks, feeding dishes of animals, and
our basic natural resources--water, soil, and air.
 
   Pesticides used improperly can be injurious to man, animals, and plants.
Follow the directions and heed all precautions on the labels.
 
   Store pesticides in original containers under lock and key-out of the reach
of children and animals-and away from food and feed.
 
   Apply pesticides so that they do not endanger humans, livestock, crops,
beneficial insects, fish, and wildlife.   Do not apply pesticides when there is
danger of drift, when honey bees or other pollinating insects are visiting
plants, or in ways that may contaminate water or leave illegal residues.
 
   Avoid prolonged inhalation of pesticide sprays or dusts; wear protective
clothing and equipment if specified on the container.
 
   If your hands become contaminated with a pesticide, do not eat or drink
until you have washed.  In case a pesticide is swallowed or gets in the eyes,
follow the first aid treatment given on the label, and get prompt medical
attention.  If a pesticide is spilled on your skin or clothing, remove clothing
immediately and wash skin thoroughly.
 
   When spraying near dwellings, be sure you have left no puddles of spray on
hard soil surfaces.  Also check children's playthings such as mud pie dishes or
other containers that may retain the spray solution and endanger small
children who may enter the area later.
 
   Do not clean spray equipment or dump excess spray material near ponds,
streams, or wells.  Because it is difficult to remove all traces of herbicides from
equipment, do not use the same equipment for insecticides or fungicides that
you use for herbicides.
 
   Dispose of empty pesticide containers promptly.  Have them buried at a
sanitary land-fill dump, or crush and bury them in a level, isolated place.
 
Protection of Persons Using Insecticides
 
   In handling any insecticide, avoid repeated or prolonged contact with skin
and prolonged inhalation of dusts, mists, and vapors.   Wear clean, dry
clothing, and wash hands and face before eating or smoking.  Launder clothing
daily.
 
   Avoid spilling the insecticide on the skin and keep it out of the eyes, nose,
and mouth.  If you spill any on your skin or clothing, remove contaminated
clothing immediately and wash the skin thoroughly with soap and water.
Launder clothing before wearing it again.   If the insecticide gets in the eyes,
flush with plenty of water for 5 minutes and get medical attention.
 
   The following insecticides can be used without special protective clothing
or devices.  In all cases, follow the label precautions.
 
Abate                                                                     ovex
Bacillus thuringiensis                             paradichlorobenzene
calcium arsenate                                                   paris green
carbaryl                                                             Perthane
chlorobenzilate                                             piperonyl butoxide
cryolite                                                            pyrethrins
dicofol                                                                 ronnel
diphenylamine                                                        rotenone
Kepone                                                                  ryania
lead arsenate                                                        sabadilla
lime sulfur                                                           Strobane
malathion                                                               sulfur
metaldehyde                                                                TDE
methoxychlor                                                        tetradifon
mirex                                                              trichlorfon
naphthalene                                                              zineb
oxythioquinox
 
   The following insecticides can be absorbed directly through the skin in
harmful quantities.  When working with these insecticides in any form, take
extra care not to let them come in contact with the skin.  Wear protective
clothing and respiratory devices as directed on the label.
 
benzene hexachloride                                                    ethion
binapacryl                                                            fenthion
chlordane                                                           heptachlor
chlorpyrifos                                                            Imidan
coumaphos                                                              lindane
crotoxyphos                                                              naled
crufomate                                                            Nemacide
diazinon                                                             phosalone
dichlorvos                                                          propargite
dimethoate                                                            propoxor
dioxathion                                                           toxaphene
endosulfan
 
   The following insecticides are highly toxic and may be fatal if swallowed,
inhaled, or absorbed through the skin.   These materials should be applied only
by a person who is thoroughly familiar with their hazards and who will
assume full responsibility for proper use and comply with all the precautions
on the labels.
 
aldicarb                                                                endrin
aldrin                                                                     EPN
Bux                                                                    famphur
azinphosmethyl                                                        methomyl
carbofuran                                                   methyl parathion
carbophenothion                                                Methyl Trithion
compound 4072                                                        mevinphos
Dasanit                                                            mexacarbate
demeton                                                          monocrotophos
dichloropropane-dichloropropene                               nicotine sulfate
   mixture                                                           parathion
dicrotophos                                                            phorate
dieldrin                                                          phosphamidon
disulfoton                                                              Telone
DN-111                                                                    tepp
Dyfonate
 
   The following insecticides are used in closed spaces as fumigants.   Because
of their volatility and toxicity, they are considered to be hazardous when
inhaled.  In closed spaces these fumigants should be used only by a licensed
pest control operator or by a qualified person who is thoroughly familiar with
their hazards, who will assume full responsibility for their proper use, and
who knows he must comply with all precautions on the labels.  The value
given in parentheses after each material is the maximum average atmospheric
concentration (threshold limit) of the insecticide, by volume, to which
workers may be exposed for an 8-hour day without injury to health.  These
threshold limit values were adopted at the 30th Annual Meeting of the
American Conference of Governmental industrial Hygienists, May 1968.
 
acrylonitrile (20 p.p.m.)                           ethyl formate (100 p.p.m.)
aluminum phosphide                      ethylene dibromide [(25 p.p.m.).sup.3]
   (as phosphine 0.3 p.p.m.)                  ethylene dicfdoride (200 p.p.m)
calcium cyanide [(5 mg. dust per                    ethylene oxide (50 p.p.m.)
   cubic meter).sup.2]                           hydrogen cyanide  10 p.p.m.)
carbon disulfide (20 p.p.m.)                methyl bromide [(20 p.p.m.).sup.3]
carbon tetrachloride (10 p.p.m.)                   methyl formate (100 p.p.m.)
chloroform [(50 p.p.m.).sup.3]                    propylene oxide (100 p.p.m.)
chloropicrin (0.1 p.p.m.)                         sulfuryl fluoride (5 p.p.m.)
 
   Reduce the danger of skin exposure to insecticides by wearing protective
clothing and equipment as specified on the label.   If specified, wear a
respirator or mask designed for protection against the particular insecticide
being used.  Directions for use or illustrative material must contain the names
of the pesticide being used.   Fullface masks should always be worn by persons
applying fumigants in buildings or warehouses.   They should also be worn by
persons applying the type of insecticide aerosols used in commercial
greenhouses and warehouses.  In many cases masks or respirators are needed
by persons loading insecticides into aircraft or applying them by aircraft.
 
   The gas methyl chloride used as a propellent in greenhouse aerosols and
the liquid fumigants carbon disulfide, ethyl formate, ethylene oxide, methyl
formate, and propylene oxide are flammable and explosive.  Never use them
near heat or fire in any form.   Never open containers of these chemicals where
there is little air in circulation without wearing an adequate fullface mask.  Do
not transfer any liquid fumigant from one container to another in a closed
room; do not breathe the fumes.
 
  (2) Not from list of threshold limit values.
  (3) Ceiling limit not to be exceeded.
 
Protection of Persons Handling Treated Plants or Objects
 
   If you must transplant or otherwise handle plants within 5 days after
treatment with azinphosmethyl, demeton, disulfoton, endrin, or parathion or
within 1 day after treatment with methyl parathion or mevinphos, protect
your skin by wearing clean, dry cotton gloves.   If gloves become wet, thoroughly
wash the hands and put on clean joves.   If you must work in close
contact with tieated crops, as in thinning or harvesting, you should also wear
dry, clean, tightly woven clothing.
 
   If concentrated pesticide is spilled on the ground, remove or bury the
contaminated soil.  This is especially important in areas where small children
play.
 
Treatment for Poisoning
 
   If a person is poisoned by an insecticide, call a physician and give first aid
immediately.  If breathing has stopped, give artificial respiration.   If two
persons are present, one should give first aid while the other obtains the
insecticide container and calls the physician.   Tell him the name of the
insecticide and obtain instructions.
 
   In general it is advisable to induce vomiting if the victim has swallowed a
high toxic insecticide and is not in an unconscious state and a physician will
not be available within 30 minutes.   A tablespoonful of salt or baking soda in
a glass of warm water will help induce vomiting.   Have the victim lie down and
keep him quiet until you get advice from a physician.   Keep the victim warm.
 
   If a concentrate or oil solution has been spilled on the skin or clothing,
remove contaminated clothing and wash skin with soap and water.  If a person
feels sick while using an insecticide or shortly afterward, call a physician
immediately.  In all cases make available the insecticide container and any
attached labeling.  Information provided by them is extremely valuable to the
physician.  Inform him of recent contacts with insecticides.  The one most
obvious to you may not be the one to blame.
 
   If a person is overcome by the vapor of a fumigant, prompt, on-the-spot
action is essential.  Carry the victim outdoors or to a room free of gas and lay
him down.  Remove contaminated clothing and keep him warm.  Administer
first aid treatment immediately.   If breathing has stopped, give artificial
respiration.  Call a physicial immediately.  Fumigators should have kits
properly equipped with antidotes required for first aid treatment of a victim
of the specific fumigant being used and instructions on treatments that are to
be administered only by a physician.
 
Protection of Fish and Wildlife
 
   No chemical control of insects should be undertaken unless the expected
benefits outweigh possible hazards to other animals.   To minimize damage to
fish and wildlife, do not use persistent chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
when alternative insecticides of lesser hazard are available.  Select insecticides
and methods of application that are least hazardous and apply them at
minimum effective dosages.
 
   Avoid drift of insecticides as much as possible and limit applications of
insecticides to the target area.   To prevent damage to fish, birds, and other
animals, be careful not to contaminate streams, lakes, marshes, and grazing or
browsing areas by improper application or excessive drift of insecticides.
Where drift is difficult to control, use sprays or granules instead of dusts, and
ground applications instead of air applications.
 
   Aircraft spraying in forest areas should be kept under aerial and ground
surveillance at all times to insure precise application.  Operations should be
suspended any time the deposit pattern is not right.   Monitor spray projects
before, during, and after spraying to evaluate the effects of the insecticide on
fish, wildlife, livestock, beneficial insects, water, soil, and plants.  Pilots should
fly spray planes at least 500 feet high when going back and forth between the
airstrip and spray block.  They should carefully choose a route parallel to but
not over streams and avoid flights over lakes, ponds, farm buildings, or
pastures.  They should check frequently to be sure that calibration is correct
and all components are in good operating condition.
   Field borders, hedgerows, ditchbanks, stream margins, and wood edges are
prime wildlife habitat.  Insofar as feasible, avoid treating them.   "Dressing the
field margins" can be very hard on desirable animal life.  Be careful to avoid
leaving treated seed or insecticide granules on the surface; this is especially
necessary at turnrows.  Overlapping swaths of insecticides are dangerous in
doubling or tripling the danger to wildlife.   This danger is greatest near aerial
turning points, where several swaths may overlap, if care is not taken to
prevent it.
 
   Do not clean spray equipment or dump excess spray materials in or near
streams or other water areas where drainage could contaminate water.
 
   In forest spraying by aircraft, lay out spray blocks and flight lines to
minimize drift into water, marshes, grazing, and other sensitive areas.  Spray as
near treetop levels as safety permits to minimize drift.  Leave a nonspray strip
along critical streams, lakes, ponds, and any other areas that may be adversely
affected.  Spray only when the wind velocity is less than 6 miles per hour and
the temperature is less than 68 [degrees] F.   Early morning or late evening hours are
usually best for air operations.   In aerial spraying of nonforest areas, take
similar precautions.
 
Protection of Insect Parasites and Predators
 
  A program of crop or forest pest control should be designed to take
maximum advantage of any biological control factors that may be present.
Whenever possible, the insecticide should be selective against the pest species
concerned and of minimum danger to beneficial insects.   If parasites or
predators are abundant, it may be advantageous to defer or omit insecticide
treatments.
 
Protection of Honey Bees and Other Insect Pollinators
 
  More than half the crops listed in this handbook are dependent on insect
pollination.  An insecticide applied to these crops is of doubtful value if it
destroys the pollinators while destroying the harmful insects.  Most of this
pollination is performed by honey bees.   Protect them.   Much of the damage to
bees by insecticides can be prevented if you do not treat crops in bloom while
bees are visiting the field.   Treatment at night is safest.  Other steps that will
reduce bee losses are:
 
   * Use pesticides only when needed.
   * Use the lowest effective dosage and make a minimum number of
     applications.
   * Use a material that is least hazardous to bees but will control the insect
     pest, if applications must be made while bees are actively visiting the
     area.
   * Use granules or dilute sprays instead of dusts.  They are usually less
      hazardous.   Application with ground equipment is less hazardous to bees
     than application with aerial equipment.
   * Avoid drift of insecticides into bee yards and adjacent crop or wild
     plants in bloom.
   * Do not apply insecticides if apiaries are near enough to be unavoidably
     affected; notify the beekeeper so he can move the hives in time.
 
 
   The following lists indicate which insecticides are hazardous to honey
bees, as determined by laboratory and field tests.   These materials are
hazardous to bees when applied as foliar treatments to agricultural and
ornamental plants (including home garden applications), mosquito abatement
treatments (except granular products) and foliage treatment to forests or
shade trees.  The materials are not hazardous when used as soil applications or
dormant applications.  For further information consult the pesticide container
label.  For information applicable to local conditions, consult your State
agricultural experiment station.
 
   Hazardous.   -The following materials are highly toxic to bees exposed to
direct treatment or residues.   Do not apply these materials while plants are in
bloom.
 
aldicarb                                                                    Bux
aldrin                                                         calcium arsenate
azinphosmethyl                                                         carbaryl
benzene hexachloride                                                 carbofuran
chloropyrifos                                                     lead arsenate
crotoxyphos                                                             lindane
Dasanit                                              malathion (as ULV or dust)
diazinon                                                       methyl parathion
dichlorovos                                                     Methyl Trithion
dicrotophos                                                           mevinphos
dieldrin                                                            mexacarbate
dimethoate                                                       monocrotophos
dyfonate                                                                  naled
EPN                                                                   parathion
famphur                                                            phosphamidon
fenthion                                                               propoxur
heptachlor                                                                 tepp
imidan                                                  (Trichlorfon as a dust)
 
  The following materials are toxic to bees and should not be applied when
bees are actively visiting the area:
 
carbophenothion                                                           mirex
chlordane                                                         naled as E.C.
coumaphos                                                              perthane
crotoxyphos                                                             phorate
demeton                                                               phosalone
disulfoton                                                             propoxur
endosulfan                                                               ronnel
endrin                                                                      TDE
malathion as E.C.
 
 
Avoiding Harmful Residues in or on Food and Feed
 
  Residues in excess of the established legal tolerances can be avoided by
applying only those insecticides specified for use on the crop or livestock and
by following indicated schedules.   Do not exceed recommended dosages.
Observe carefully the safety restrictions, especially the required interval
between the last application and harvest or feeding, and between the last
application and slaughter of animals.
 
  Avoid drift of insecticide sprays or dust to nearby crops or livestock,
especially from applications by aircraft and other power equipment.  Do not
allow poultry, dairy animals, or meat animals to feed on plants or drink water
contaminated by drift of insecticides.
 
  Certain root crops, such as sugarbeets, peanuts, carrots, and parsnips, are
susceptible to contamination from residues of certain organochlorine insecticides
in the soil.  Do not apply aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin,
heptachlor, or toxaphene to soils where the crop rotation includes one of
these crops unless a finite tolerance has been established for the insecticide.
 
  Byproducts from a number of crops treated with insecticides may be
safely fed to livestock or poultry if the crops are harvested or fed after the
specified waiting period.  However, when byproducts from some crops treated
with certain insecticides are fed to livestock, insecticide residues in excess of
established tolerances may appear in meat, milk, or eggs.  Before using an
insecticide, read carefully the safety restrictions in the last column of the
tables beginning on page 1.1 of this handbook to determine if such
byproducts as sweet corn husks, citrus pulp, bagasse, alfalfa threshings, apple
pomace, bean and pea vines, sugarbeet tops, cull potatoes, trimmings from
leafy vegetables, and gin waste from cotton are safe for feeding to dairy
animals, poultry, or animals being finished for slaughter.
 
  In storage areas apply only those insecticides registered for the purpose.   A
commodity that comes in contact with floors or walls treated with an
insecticide not registered for use in storage areas may become contaminated
and be liable to confiscation.   Repeated applications of some fumigants will
cause residues to build up in the commodities.   Be sure to follow the
instructions on the registered label.   Such a label will include an Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) Registration Number.
 
Safe Disposal of Empty Insecticide Containers and Surplus
Insecticides
 
  The careful disposal of empty insecticide containers and surplus insecticides
is an important part of safe insecticide use.   When possible, growers
should carry their empty insecticide containers to a sanitary land-fill and have
them buried.  Do not abandon them on the land-fill.  Inform the operator of
the nature of the residues in the containers.   Warn him of any danger of
poisonous vapors if burned.  Crush or puncture containers to prevent reuse.
 
  If a suitable land-fill is not available, break or crush glass and metal
containers (except pressurized cans) and bury them in an isolated place where
they will not contaminate water supplies.   Pour excess insecticides into a hole
at least 18 inches deep, dug in level ground in an isolated place where they
will not contaminate water supplies.   Cover with dirt.   If you have trash
collection service, wrap small empty containers in several layers of newspapers
before placing them in trash cans.
 
  Sell large drums that contained insecticides to a firm dealing in used drums
or barrels.  The firm should have equipment to neutralize the toxicity of the
adhering insecticides.  Do not attempt to use the drums where they could
become a source of contamination to feed or water.   Old pesticide drums used
as floats corrode and thus cause serious fish kills.
 
  Do not dump containers or leftover chemicals in gullies, ditches, streams,
woods, or trash heaps.
 
  For more specific information on the safe use of insecticides, consult your
State agricultural experiment station or one of the following U.S. Department
of Agriculture publications:
 
  Program Aid 622, "Farmers' Checklist for Pesticide Safety"
 
  Program Aid 589, "Safe Use of Pesticides in the Home-in the Garden"
 
  ARS 33-76-2, "Respiratory Devices for Protection Against Certain
    Insecticides"
 
  Program Aid 727, "Use Chemicals Safely in the Production of Beef Cattle,
    Swine, and Sheep."
 
 
                      TOXICITY OF INSECTICIDES
 
  All insecticides must be considered potentially toxic to man and animals.
However, the degree of toxicity is one of several factors in the use of
insecticides that determine the hazard to man.   The primary hazard lies in
failure to follow the precautions and directions for use indicated on the
insecticide label and summarized in this handbook.   These precautions and
directions depend not only on the degree of toxicity and the nature of
toxicity of the insecticide but also on its stability.   Some highly toxic
insecticides that must be handled with great caution dissipate so rapidly upon
exposure on plants or animals or in the soil that they create no serious residue
problems.  On the contrary, some insecticides of low toxicity persist in the
soil, on plants, and in meat and fat of animals that feed on these plants and
may thus create critical residue problems.
 
   In general, arsenical insecticides are very stable and may accumulate in the
soil in quantities sufficient to injure plants.   Small quantities are taken up by
plants, which in time are eaten by animals.
 
   Some organochlorine insecticides may also persist in the soil for years.
Certain crops grown in such soils may pick up enough insecticide through
contamination or translocation to exceed tolerances, even though the
insecticide was not applied to them but to previous crops in the rotation.  For
example, enough aldrin or chlordane may persist in soil from year to year to
contaminate such sensitive root crops as sugarbeets or carrots.
 
   Organophosphorus insecticides generally are more toxic to animals than
organochlorines.  However, the organophosphorus insecticides usually do not
leave highly persistent residues on treated plants or animals and are less likely
to accumulate in animal tissues.   Diazinon and parathion applied to the soil
become ineffective within 2 or 3 months and are not problems in rotation of
crops.  The persistence of insecticides is reflected in the waiting periods
required between application and harvest.   The toxicity of insecticides is a
major factor in determining the tolerances set.   The tolerance is set at a safe
level as determined by data obtained in animal feeding studies.  An adequate
safety factor is used in translating animal data to man.  However, a tolerance is
not established at a level higher than required for the purpose in accordance
with good agricultural practice even if the toxicity of the pesticide is so low
that a higher tolerance would be safe.   Many factors must be considered in
selecting an insecticide for a specific purpose.   Whenever possible, preference
should always be given to insecticides that have low toxicity, persist only a
short time, and do not accumulate in animal tissues.
 
   The following two tables provide information on the acute toxicity of
various insecticides.  In the first table, acute oral and dermal [LD.sub.50] (lethal
dosage) values are given for most of the compounds included in this
handbook.  An [LD.sub.50] value is a statistical estimate of the dosage necessary to
kill 50 percent of a population of white rats or other test animals within a
specified period under standardized conditions in the laboratory.  The toxicity
of a chemical to such animals may vary, however, with species, age, sex, and
nutritional state, and with the formulation of the insecticide and the manner
of administration.  Also the [LD.sub.50] values are usually expressed in terms of a
single dosage, which provides little or no information on possible cumulative
effects of repeated dosages of the compound.
 
   In the second table are given the acute [LC.sub.50] values (lethal concentration)
of some of the common insecticides for two fresh water fishes-rainbow trout
and bluegills.
 
   [LD.sub.50] or [LC.sub.50] values are useful in comparing different chemical
compounds.  However, they have certain limitations, and caution must be
used in interpreting them in relation to actual use hazards.  Since the values
are obtained for other animals or fish, they can be applied to man only with
reservations.  Under comparable conditions and dosages, highly toxic substances
are more hazardous than less toxic substances.   However, such factors
as dosage, frequency of application, and characteristics with respect to
accumulation and persistence in animal tissues must be considered.  For
example, a highly toxic material applied at a low dosage may be less
hazardous than a much less toxic one applied at a high dosage.
 
 
         Acute Oral and Dermal [LD.sub.50] Values of Insecticides for
                                Test Animals
 
   (Data assembled by the Atlanta Toxicology Branch, Division of Pesticides,
Bureau of Science, Food and Drug Administration, Consumer Protection and
Environmental Health Service, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare.   Most of the values are based on standardized
tests by the Atlanta Toxicology Laboratory of the Division of Pesticides; a
few are based on publications from other laboratories.   All values are for white
rats unless otherwise indicated.)
 
                           Oral [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)       Dermal [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
 
Insecticide                 Males     Females                  Males      Females
 
                           Organochlorine Insecticides
 
aldrin                          39            60                   98          98
benzene hexachloride     (1)1,250           ..                    ..           ..
chlordane                      335          430                  840          690
chlorobenzilate             1,040        1,220                    ..       >5,000
dichloropropane-
   dichloropropene         (1)140           ..            (1,2)2,100           ..
dicoful                     1,100        1,000                 1,230        1,000
dieldrin                        46           46                   90           60
endosulfan                      43           18                  130           74
 
See footnotes at end of table.
 
 
           Acute Oral and Dermal [LD.sub.50] Values of Insecticides
                          for Test Animals-Continued
 
                          Oral [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)       Dermal [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
 
Insecticide                Males      Females                 Males       Females
 
 
                     Organochlorine Insecticides-Continued
 
endrin                       17.8            7.5                18            15
ethylene dichloride        (1)770            ..         (1,2)3,890            ..
heptachlor                     100           162               195           250
Kepone                         125            125            >2,000       >2,000
lindane                         88            91              1,000           900
methoxychlor                5,000         5,000                 ..        >6,000
mirex                          740            600            >2,000       >2,000
paradichlorobenzene         3,850         3,900                 ..           ..
Perthane                   >4,000        >4,000                 ..            ..
Strobane                   (1)200            ..        (1,2)>5,000            ..
TDE                        >4,000        >4,000        (1,2)>4,000            ..
Telone                 (1)250-500            ..                 ..            ..
tetradifon             (1)>14,700            ..      (1,2)>10, 000            ..
toxaphene                       90            80             1,075           780
 
 
                         Organophosphorus Insecticides
 
Abate                       8,600        13,000             >4,000        >4,000
azinphosmethyl                  13            11               220           220
carbophenothion                 30            10                54            27
chloropyrifos                  155            82               202            ..
coumaphos                       41            15.5             860            ..
crotoxyphos                    110            74               375           202
crufomate                      635           460                ..            ..
Dasanit                          4.1            1.8              19            4.1
demeton                          6.2            2.5              14            8.2
diazinon                       108             76               900          455
 
See footnotes at end of table.
 
 
             Acute Oral and Dermal [LD.sub.50] Values of Insecticides
                            for Test Animals-Continued
 
                            Oral [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)         Dermal [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
 
Insecticide                  Males    Females                  Males      Females
 
 
                  Organophosphorus Insecticides-Continued
 
dichlorvos                       80         56                    107          75
dicrotophos                      21         16                    43           42
dimethoate                      215        245                   610          610
dioxathion                       43         23                   235           63
disulfoton                        6.8        2.3                  15            6
Dyfonate                    (1)>16.5       ..              (1,2)>150           ..
EPN                              36           7.7                 230          25
ethion                           65          27                   245          62
famphur                     (1)>35         ..            (1,2)>1,460           ..
fenthion                        215        245                   330          330
Imidan                         113         160                 >2,000       1,550
malathion                    1,375      1,000                 >4,444       >4,444
methyl parathion                 14         24                    67           67
Methyl Trithion                 98         120                    215         190
mevinphos                         6.1        3.7                   4.7          4.2
monocrotophos                    17.5       20                   126          112
naled                           250         ..                    800          ..
Nemacide                        270         ..                    ..           ..
parathion                        13          3.6                  21            6.8
phorate                           2.3         1.1                   6.2          2.5
phosalone                       120    135-170                 1,390          ..
phosphamidon                     23.5       23.5                 143          107
ronnel                       1,250      2,630                     ..       >5,000
tepp                              1.05       ..                     2.4        ..
tetrapopyl
   thiopyrophosphate       (1)1,450        ..                  2,100        1,800
trichlorfon                     630        560                >2,000       >2,000
 
See footnotes at end of table.
 
 
              Acute Oral and Dermal [LD.sub.50] Values of Insecticides
                             for Test Animals-Continued
 
                              Oral [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)     Dermal [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
 
Insecticide                     Males    Females              Males      Females
 
 
                              Carbamate Insecticides
 
aldicarb                             0.8         0.65               3          2.5
Bux                                95          63                 242        156
carbaryl                           850         500             >4,000     >4,000
carbofuran                           8.7         8.0           >1,000     >1,000
mexacarbate                         19         34             >2,000
zineb                           >5,000         >5,000          >2,500     >2,500
 
 
                                Other Insecticides
 
binapacryl                          63         58               810          720
calcium arsenate                   ..         298                ..      >2,400
cryolite                        (1)200          ..                ..          ..
DN-111                          (1)330          ..       (1,4)>1,000          ..
ethylene dibromide                 146        117        (1,2,3)300          ..
lead arsenate                       ..      1,050                ..       >2,400
metaldehyde            (1,5)ca. 1,000         ..                             ..
napthalene                       2,200      2,400            >2,500       >2,500
nicotine sulfate                    ..         83                ..          285
ovex                         (1)2,050         ..                 ..           ..
oxythioquinox                    1,800      1,100            >2,000       >2,000
paris green                         ..        100                ..       >2,400
propoxur                            83          86            >2,400      >2,400
pyrethrins                         470        263       (1,2)>1,880           ..
rotenone                     (1)50-75          ..          (1,2)>940          ..
ryania                           1,200          ..       (1,2)>4,000          ..
Uniroyal DO14                    1,480      1,480               250          680
 
  (1) Sex not indicated.                 (4) Value for guinea pigs.
  (2) Value for rabbits.                 (5) Value for dogs.
  (3) Approximate [LD.sub.50].
             Acute 24-Hour [LC.sub.50] Values of Insecticides for
                        Rainbow Trout and Bluegills
 
   (Data provided by Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory, U.S. Department
of the Interior, Columbia, Mo. Rainbow trout were tested at 55 [degrees] F. and
bluegills at 65 [degrees] or 75 [degrees].   Certain persistent insecticides exhibit cumulative
toxicity for fish and shellfish at levels lower than shown in this study.)
 
                               [LC.sub.50] for rainbow      [LC.sub.50] for bluegills
Insecticide                         trout (p.p.b.)                  (p.p.b.)
 
Abate                                      8,200                              -
aldrin                                        14                             22
azinphosmethyl                                14                             22
benzene hexachloride                          76                           560
binapacryl                                    42                             41
carbaryl                                   3,500                          3,400
carbophenothion                                -                             24
chlordane                                     22                             54
chlorobenzilate                              750                              -
chlorpyrifos                                  32.6                            3.4
crotoxyphos                                 140                            760
cryolite                                 160,000                        400,000
cube extract formulation                      32                             24
   (4.85 percent rotenone)
demeton                                       -                            195
diazinon                                     380                             54
dichlorvos                                   500                          1,000
dichrotophos                              15,000                        38,000
dicofol                                      110                            960
dieldrin                                       6                             14
dimethoate                                20,000                         28,000
dioxathion                                   130                             16
disulfoton                                 2,450                             65
endosulfan                                     1.8                            2.2
endrin                                          .7                             .8
EPN                                          210                            370
ethion                                     1,300                            700
fenthion                                    840                          1,800
 
 
             Acute 24-Hour [LC.sub.50] Values of Insecticides for
                        Rainbow Trout and Bluegills-Continued
 
                               [LC.sub.50] for rainbow      [LC.sub.50] for bluegills
Insecticide                         trout (p.p.b.)                  (p.p.b.)
 
heptachlor                                    15                             35
Kepone                                        66                            260
lime sulfur                                   10                             48
lindane                                       30                             61
malathion                                    100                            120
methoxychlor                                 20                             31
methyl parathion                           7,000                          8,500
Methyl Trithion                            1,800                          1,200
mevinphos                                     34                             41
mexacarbate                                7,000                              -
mirex                                    126,000                       >100,000
monochrotophos                            12,000                         23,000
oxythioquinox                              1,550                            110
naled                                        250                          2,200
Nemacide                                   1,600                          4,300
ovex                                        860                            870
parathion                                  2,000                             56
Perthane                                       9                             21
phorate                                       25                             10
phosalone                                 11,000                          5,100
phosphamidon                               4,500                         26,000
piperonyl butoxide                             -                          8,800
pyrethrins extract(1)                         56                             78
ryania                                         -                         24,000
Strobane                                      12                             15
TDE                                           30                             56
tetradifon                                 3,700                          1,100
toxaphene                                      7.6                            7.2
trichlorfon                              27,500                          5,600
 
   (1) Synergized formulation containing 4.85 percent of pyrethrins.
 
 
            CHEMICALS REFERRED TO IN THIS HANDBOOK
 
   [Common names for pesticides approved by the American National
Standards Institute are indicated by an asterisk.   Chemical names conform to
those used in "Acceptable Common Names and Chemical Names for the
ingredients Statement on Pesticide Labels," 2d ed., 1972.  Pesticides
Regulations Division, Environmental Protection Agency.]
 
    Name Used                                    Identity
 
Abate [R]                         O,O,O',O'-tetramethyl O,O'-thiodi-p-phenylene
                                 phosphorothioate
acrylonitrile                     acrylonitrile
aldicarb (Temik [R])              2-methyl-2-(methythio)propionaldehyde
                                 O-(methylcarbamoyl)oxime
(*)aldrin                         hexachlorohexahydro-endo, exo-
                                 dimethanonaphthalene 95% and related                             
                                 compounds 5%
aluminum phosphide                aluminum phosphide
azinphosmethyl                    O,O-dimethyl S-[(4-oxo-1,2,3-benzo
                                 triazin-3(4H)-yl)methyl] phosphorodithioate
benzene hexachloride              1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane, consisting
                                 of several isomers and containing a specified
                                 percentage of gamma isomer
(*)binapacryl                    2-sec-butyl-4,6-dinitrophenyl 3-methyl-
                                 2-butenoate
borox                             sodium tetraborate decahydrate
boric acid                        boric acid
Bux [R]                           a mixture of 3 parts m-(1- methylbutyl)phenyl
                                 methylcarbamate and 1 part m(1-ethylpropyl)-
                                 phenyl methylcarbamate
calcium arsenate                  calcium arsenate
calcium cyanide                   calcium cyanide
(*)carbaryl                       1-naphthyl methylcarbamate
(*)carbofuran (Furadan [R])       2,3-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-7-benzofuranyl
                                 methylcarbamate
carbon disulfide                  carbon disulfide
carbon tetrachloride             carbon tetrachloride
(*)carbophenothion                S-[[(p-chlorophenyl)thio]methyl] O,O-diethyl
                                 phosphorodithioate
 
      Name Used                                Identity
 
chlordane, technical              octachloro-4,7-methanotetrahydroindan 60% and
                                 related compounds 40%
chlorobenzilate                   ethyl 4,4'-dichlorobenzilate
chloroform                        chloroform
chloropicrin                      trichloronitromethane
(*)chlorphyrifos(Dursban [R])    O,O-diethyl O-(3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl)
                                 phosphorothioate
Compound 4072                     2-chloro-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)vinyl diethyl
                                 phosphate
coumaphos                         O,O-diethyl O-(3-chloro-4-methyl-2-oxo-2H-1-
                                 benzopyran-7-yl) phosphorothioate.
crotoxyphos                       dimethyl phosphate of alpha-methylbenzyl
                                 3-hydroxy-cis-crotonate
(*)crufomate (Ruelene [R])        4-tert-butyl-2-chlorophenyl methyl
                                 methylphosphoramidate
cryolite                          sodium hexafluoroaluminate
Dasanit [R]                       O,O-diethyl O-[p-(methylsulfinyl)phenyl]
                                 phosphorothioate
demeton                           O,O-diethyl O-[2-(ethylthio) ethyl]
                                 phosphorothioate and O,O-diethyl S-[2-
                                 ethylthio) ethyl] phosphorothioate
diazinon                          O,O-diethyl O-(2-isoprohyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinyl)
                                 phosphorodithioate.
dichloropropane-                  dichloropropane-dichloropropene mixture
    dichloropropene.
dichlorovos, technical            93 percent 2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate
                                 and 7 percent related compounds
dicofol                           1,1-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-2,2,2-trichloroethanol
dicrotophos                       dimethyl phosphate ester with 3-hydroxy-N,N-
                                 dimethyl-cis-crotonamide
dieldrin                          hexachloroepoxyoctahydro-endo,exo-
                                 dimethanonaphthalene 85% and related
                                 compounds 15%
(*)dimethoate                     O,O-dimethyl S-(N-methylcarbamoyl methyl
                                 phosphorodithioate
(*)dioxathion                     2,3,-p-dioxanedithiol S,S-bis(O,O-diethyl
                                 phosphorodithioate)
 
      Name Used                                Identity
 
diphenylamine                     diphenylamine
disulfoton                        O,O-diethyl S-[2-(ethylthio)ethyl] phosphoro-
                                 dithioate
DN-111 [R]                        4,6,-dinitro-o-cyclohexylphenol,
                                 dicyclohexylamine salt
dormant oil                       a formulation of petroleum oil phytotoxic to
                                 foliage prepared for sprays on dormant plants,
                                 usually an emulsifiable concentrate of high oil
                                 content
Dyfonate [R]                      O-ethyl S-phenyl ethylphosphonodithioate
(*)endosulfan                     6,7,8,9,10,10-hexachloro-1,5,5a,6,9,-9a-
                                 hexahydro-6,9-methano-2,4,3-benzodioxathiepin
                                 3-oxide
endrin                            hexachloroepoxyoctahydro-endo-endo-
                                 dimethanonaphthalene
EPN                               O-ethyl O-(p-nitrophenyl)
                                 phenylphosphonothioate
(*)ethion                         O,O,O',O'-tetraethyl
                                 S,S'-methylenebisphosphorodithioate
ethylene dibromide                1,2,-dibromoethane
ethylene dichloride               1,2,-dichloroethane
ethylene oxide                    ethylene oxide
ethyl formate                     ethyl formate
famphur                           O,O,-dimethyl O-[p-(dimethyl-
                                 sulfamoyl)phenyl] phosphorothioate
fenthion                          O,O-dimethyl O-[4-(methylthio)-
                                 m-tolyl] phosphorothioate
Flit MLO [R]                      Mosquito larvicide oil (99% mineral oil)
heptachlor                        heptachlorotetrahydro-4.7- methanoindene and
                                 related compounds
hydrogen cyanide                  hydrocyanic acid
Imidan [R]                        N-(mercaptomethyl) phthalimide
                                 S-O,O-dimethyl phosphorodithioate
Kepone [R]                        decachlorooctahydro-1,3,4-metheno-
                                 2H-cyclobuta [cd] pentalen-2-one
lead arsenate                     lead arsenate
           
      Name Used                                Identity
 
lime sulfur                       30% calcium polysulfide and various small
                                 amount of calcium thiosulfate plus water and
                                 free sulfur
lindane                           1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane, gamma isomer
                                 of not less than 99% purity
malathion                         O,O-dimethyl dithiophosphate of dimethyl
                                 mercaptosuccinate
mataldehyde                       metaldehyde
(*)methomyl                       S-methyl N-[(methylcarbamoyl)oxy)-
                                 thioacetimidate
methoxychlor, technical           1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-methoxy-
                                 phenyl)ethane 88% and related compounds
                                 12%
methyl bromide                    bromomethane
methyl chloride                   chloromethane
methyl formate                    methyl formate
methyl parathion                  O,O-dimethyl O-(p-nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate
Methyl Trithion [R]               S-[[(p-chlorophenyl)thio]methyl] O,O-dimethyl
                                 phosphorodithioate
mevinphos, technical              2-carbonethoxy-1-methylvinyl dimethyl phosphate
                                 alpha isomer and related compounds
(*)mexacarbate (Zectran [R])      4-(dimethylamino)-3,5-xylyl methylcarbamate
mirex                             dodecachlorooctahydro-1,3,4-metheno-1H-
                                 cyclobuta[cd]pentalene
monocrotophos                     dimethyl phosphate of 3-hydroxy-
                                 N,N-dimethyl-cis-crotonamide
(*)naled                          1,2,-dibromo-2,2-dichloroethyl dimethyl phosphate
naphthalene                       naphthalene
Nemacide                          O-(2,4-dichlorophenyl) O,O-diethyl phosphorothioate
(*)ovex                           p-chlorophenyl p-chlorobenzenesulfonate
oxythioquinox                     6-methyl-2,3-quinoxalinedithiol cyclic S,S-
                                 dithiocarbonate
paradichlorobenzene               p-dichlorobenzene
parathion                         O,O-diethyl O(p-nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate
paris green                       copper acetoarsenite
Perthane [R]                      diethyldiphenyldichloroethane and related
                                 compounds
 
      Name Used                                Identity
 
(*)phorate                        O,O-diethyl S-[(ethylthio)methyl] phosphorodioate
(*)phosalone                      O,O-diethyl S-[(6-chloro-2-oxobenzoxazolin-3-
                                 yl)methyl] phosphorodithioate
(*)phosphamidon                   2-chloro-2-diethylcarbamoyl-1-methylvinyl
                                 dimethyl phosphate
piperonyl butoxide,               (butylcarbityl) 6-propylpiperonyl) ether 80% and
     technical.                   related compounds 20%
(*)propargite                     2-(p-tert-butylphenoxy)cyclohexyl
                                 2-propynyl sulfide
propoxur                          o-isopropoxyphenyl methylcarbamate
propylene oxide                   propylene oxide
pyrethrins                        the active insecticidal constituents of pyrethrum
(*)ronnel                         O,O-dimethyl O-(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl)
                                 phosphorothioate
rotenone                          the primary active compound of derris and cube
                                 roots
ryania (ryanodine)                powdered stemwood of Ryania speciosa
sabadilla                         ground seeds of sabadilla containing veratrine, a
                                 complex mixture of alkaloids
Strobane [R]                      terpene polychlorinates (65 percent chlorine)
sulfur                           sulfur
sulfuryl fluoride                 sulfuryl fluoride
summer oil                        a formulation of petroleum oil prepared for use
                                 in sprays to plant foliage, usually an emulsifiable
                                 concentrate of high oil content
tartar emetic                     antimony potassium tartrate
TDE                               dichlorodiphenyidichloreoethane
Telone [R]                        mixed dichloropropenes
tepp                             tetraethyl pyrophosphate
(*)tetradifon                     4-chlorophenyl 2,4,5-trichlorophenyl sulfone
tetrapropyl                       O,O,O,O-tetrapropyl dithiopyrophosphate
   thiopyrophosphate
   (Aspon [R]).
toxaphene                         chlorinated camphene containing 67-69 percent
                                 chlorine
trichlorfon                       dimethyl (2,2,2,-trichloro-1-hydroxyethyl)-
                                 phosphonate
zineb                             zinc ethylenebis[dithiocarbamate]
          
 
                 EXPLANATION OF TABLES THAT FOLLOW
 
   The tables that follow list the insecticides to use in the control of the
major insect pests and give the formulations to purchase, dosages to use, and
brief instructions on where and when to apply these insecticides.  The tables
also include the legal tolerances for insecticide residues permitted on food or
feed products and the minimum time that must be allowed after applying the
suggested dosages of insecticides in order to meet these tolerances.  Other
safety restrictions on the specific use of certain insecticides are given in the
last column of the same page as the insecticide.   Always read these safety
restrictions to see if any of them apply to the insecticide that you plan    to use
and then observe those that are appropriate.   For general precautions in the
use of insecticides, see page.
 
   With a few exceptions, the crops, insects, and insecticides are listed
alphabetically.  See page for the identification of the insecticides.
 
   The insecticides listed for each insect are alternatives and are to be used
separately unless mixtures of two or more materials are indicated by plus (+)
signs.
 
   "Formulation" refers to the form of the insecticide, usually as purchased.
Dusts, baits, fumigants, aerosols, and granules are generally applied at the
strength purchased.  Emulsifiable concentrates, wettable powders, suspension
concentrates, and powders are to be diluted with water unless otherwise
indicated.  The amount of water to use will depend on the output of the
equipment.
 
   A single entry in a box applies to all the insecticides and formulations
opposite that box, except as specified.
 
   A dash in any column indicates that there is no appropriate entry.
 
   The word "extended" in the tolerance column means that the registration
for this particular use of the insecticide has been extended to allow time for
the establishment of a finite tolerance.   It will be withdrawn when the
extension expires.  Therefore, the insecticide must not be used on the
indicated crop or animal without determining whether the registration is still
in effect.  Check with your county agricultural agent or with your State
agricultural experiment station.
 
   The term "nonfood use" in the tolerance column means that a tolerance is
not needed.  The Pesticides Regulation Division has determined that based on
consideration of the pattern of use and the nature of the chemical, there is no
reasonable expectation of any residue reaching and being retained in or on
food or feed.
 
   The word "safe" in the tolerance column means that the insecticide is
"generally recognized as safe GRAS" under the provisions of 21 CFR 120.2
of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act as amended.   A tolerance is not
needed for such insecticides.   Also, when "exempt" appears in this column, it
means that under the provisions of this act, the insecticide used in this
specific way has been exempted from the requirement for establishment of a
tolerance.
 
The following abbreviations are used:
    Bait                                                            B                  
    Dust                                                            D                  
    Emulsifiable concentrate                                      EC                
    Fumigant                                                        F                
    Granules                                                        G            
    Solution                                                    soln.               
    Spray                                                           S
    Ultra low volume concentrate                                 ULV         
    Wettable powder                                                WP
 
 
   The insecticide dosages given in this handbook are the maximums
suggested for mature plants and animals.   Often they may be reduced for
immature plants or animals without loss in effectiveness.  Effective dosages
may also be reduced by careful attention to application under favorable
weather conditions.  However, be careful not to exceed the suggested dosages
except as indicated on the registered insecticide label.  Dosages larger than
those suggested in these tables may leave illegal residues on the harvested
product unless more time is allowed between the last application and harvest
than is suggested in the table.
  
   The principles followed in the commercial use of insecticides on crops,
livestock, or stored products should also be followed in their use in the home
and the home garden.  However, untrained persons should not use any
insecticide labeled POISON and illustrated with the drawing of the skull and
crossbones.
  
   Trade names are used in this handbook solely for the purpose of providing
specific information.  Mention of a trade name does not constitute a guarantee
or warranty of the product by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
 
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                             Appendix B
 
                            BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
The information in this manual is not and can not be complete.  The
information presented here cannot be immediately applicable or appropriate
to all regions or to every storage need.   You may well require
further technical assistance in adapting these materials and others
to your grain storage situation.   Some of that help can come from
books; much, from organizations and people.
 
The Tropical Products Institute (TPI) may already be a familiar name
to you.  This agency does a great deal to gather and distribute information
worldwide on grain and grain storage problems.   Materials from
the TPI library have been of great value in the preparation of this
manual.
 
Peace Corps and VITA are grateful to TPI for its permission to reprint
that agency's bibliography of materials on the various aspects of farm-level
grain storage.
 
                      Tropical Products Institute
 
G64                   Crop storage bibliography
                       (with particular reference to
                      the storage of durable
                      agricultural produce in tropical
                      and sub-tropical countries)
 
                      Mrs. S.M. Blatchford and A.J. Wye
 
  This bibliography has been produced by the Tropical Products Institute, a British
  Government organization which helps developing countries to derive greater benefits
  from their renewable resources.
 
  Reproduction of this bibliography, in whole or in part, is gladly permitted provided that
  full acknowledgement is given to the Tropical Products Institute, Foreign and
  Commonwealth Office, (Overseas Development Administration), and to the authors.
 
  Requests for further information on this subject should be addressed to:
 
  Tropical Stored Products Centre
  (Tropical Products Institute)
  London Road
  Slough SL3 7HL
  Bucks.
 
Contents
 
 
TEXTBOOKS
 
JOURNALS
 
ANNUAL REPORTS
 
HANDBOOKS, BULLETINS, SPECIAL REPORTS
 
ADVISORY LEAFLETS
 
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
 
 
N O T E S
 
This bibliography attempts to bring together a selection of the more important publications
dealing with tropical crop storage; it clearly cannot be exhaustive.
 
Where possible, the prices (at time of publication) and addresses are given for obtaining
publications listed here, excluding scientific papers.   A list of the most common addresses
appears below.
 
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION:
Sales Branch, 101-113, Pentonville Road, London, N.1.
 
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD:
Tolcarne Drive, Pinner, Middlesex.
 
UNITED NATIONS:  FOOD & AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION:
Distribution & Sales Section, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
 
UNITED STATES:  DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. 20402, U.S.A.
 
Textbooks
 
ANDERSON, J.A. and ALCOCK, A.W. (Eds).
1954            Storage of cereal grains and their products.   St. Paul, Minn:  Amer. Ass.
                Cereal Chem., 1954, ix + 515 pp. (Out of print:   obtainable from Univ.
                Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich., price 10.00 [pounds].   Currently under revision).
 
BUSVINE, J.R.   Insects and hygiene.  The biology and control of insect pests of medical
1966            and domestic importance.  London:   Methuen and Co., 1966, 2nd rev.
                edn, xi + 467 pp. Price 5.00 [pounds].
 
CHRISTENSEN, C.M. and KAUFMANN, H.H.
1969            Grain storage.  The role of fungi in quality loss.  Minneapolis, Minn.:
                Univ. Minnesota Press, 1969, vii + 153 pp. Price $6.50.
 
COTTON, R.T.    Pests of stored grain and grain products.  Minneapolis, Minn:  Burgess
1963            Publg Co., 1963, rev. edn, 2 + i + 318 pp.  (Out of print).
 
MUNRO, J. W.    Pests of stored products.  London:   Hutchinson (The Rentokil Library),
1966            1966, 234 pp. Price 2.10 [pounds].
 
TRISVYATSKII, L.A.
1966            Storage of grain.  Moscow:   Izdatel'stva 'Kolos', 1966, 3rd edn, 406 pp.
                (Translated into English by Keane, D.M. and edited by Kent, N.L. &
                Freeman, J.A. Boston Spa:  natn. Lending Libr., 1969, 3 volumes, 244,
                287 & 307 pp. Price 1.25 [pounds] per vol., 3.75 [pounds] the set).
 
Journals
 
BULLETIN OF GRAIN TECHNOLOGY.
                Quarterly.   Hapur:  Foodgrain Technologists' Research Association of
                India.  Price $3.00 per annum.
 
JOURNAL OF STORED PRODUCTS RESEARCH.
                Quarterly.  Oxford:   Pergamon Press.   Price 12.00 [pounds] per annum.
 
TROPICAL STORED PRODUCTS INFORMATION.
                Biannual.  Bulletin of the Tropical Stored Products Centre (Tropical
                Products Institute).  Free.   (Enquiries to the Tropical Stored Products
                Centre, (TPI), London Road, Slough SL3 7HL, Bucks).
 
Annual Reports
 
CENTRAL FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE.
                Annual reports of the C.F.T.R.I., Mysore - 2, India.   Priced.
 
INFESTATION CONTROL.
                Reports of the Infestation Control Laboratory (Ministry of Agriculture,
                Fisheries & Food).  London:  HMSO.   Priced.
 
NIGERIAN STORED PRODUCTS RESEARCH INSTITUTE.
                Annual reports of the Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Federal
                Ministry of Trade.  Lagos:   Fed. Minist. Inform., Printing Div. Priced.
 
PEST INFESTATION RESEARCH.
                Annual reports of the Pest Infestation Laboratory (Agricultural Research
                Council).  London:   HMSO.  Priced.
 
TROPICAL PRODUCTS INSTITUTE.
                Annual reports (up to and including 1967) and then Biennial reports of the
                Tropical Products Institute, (Overseas Development Administration).   May
                be priced.  (Enquiries to the Scientific Secretariat, Tropical Products
                Institute, 56-62 Gray's Inn Road, London WC1X 8LU).
 
TROPICAL STORED PRODUCTS CENTRE:   MINISTRY OF OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT.
                1970.  Tropical Stored Products Centre.  A Report on the work 1965 - 1966. 
                (The work of the Centre prior to 1965 was reported as part of the
                Annual Report 'Pest Infestation Research'; from July 1967 it forms a part
                of the Annual and Biennial Reports of the Tropical Products Institute.
                Enquiries to the Tropical Stored Products Centre, (TPI), London Road,
                Slough SL3 7HL, Bucks).
 
Handbooks, Bulletins, Special Reports
 
BROWN, W.B].    Fumigation with methyl bromide under gas-proof sheets.   Dep. Sci. Ind.
1959            Res., Pest Infest. Res. Bull. No. 1. London:  HMSO, 1959, 2nd edn, ii +
                44 pp.  Price 22 1/2p.
 
COTTERELL, G.S. and HOWE, R.W.
1952            Insect infestation of stored food products in Nigeria.   (Report of a survey,
                1948 - 50, and of control measures adopted).  Colonial Res. Publn No. 12.
                London:  HMSO, 1952, 40 pp. Price 25p.
 
EASTER, S.S.    (Ed).  Preservation of grains in storage.  Papers presented at the international
1947            meeting on infestation of foodstuffs, London, 5 - 12 Aug., 1947.   Wash.,
                D.C.:  Fd. Agric. Org. agric. Stud. No. 2, 1948, 174 pp.  Price $1.50.
 
FREEMAN, J.A.   Control of pests in stored agricultural products with special reference to
1958            grain.  Report of a survey in North and South America and certain Mediterrane;
                countries in 1954 and 1955.  Org. eur. econ. Coop., eur.  Productivity Agency
                Project No. 212, Feb. 1958.  Paris:  OEEC, 1958, 169 pp.   Price 57 1/2p.
                (OEEC Dist. & Sales Serv., 33 Rue de Franqueville, Paris 16e and overseas
                agents).
 
FURMAN, D.L.    Suggested guide for the use of insecticides to control insects affecting crops,
1968            livestock, households, stored products, forests and forest products.  U.S.
                Dep. Agric., agric. Res. Serv., agric. Handbk No. 331, 1968, rev. edn, xvi +
                273 pp + 2 app.  Price $1.50.
 
HALL, D.W.      Handling and storage of food grains in tropical and sub-tropical areas.  FAO
1970            agric. Dev. Paper No. 90.  Rome:  UNFAO, 1970, xiv + 350 pp.
                Price US $6 (2.40 [pounds]).
 
HINTON, H.E. and CORBET, A.S.
1963            Common insect pests of stored food products.   A guide to their identification.
                Econ. Ser. Brit. Museum (nat. Hist.), No. 15.  London:  British Museum,
                1963, 4th edn, vi + 61 pp. Price 17 1/2p.
 
HOLMAN, L.E.    (Compiler).  Aeration of grain in commercial storages.  U.S. Dep. Agric.,
1960            Mktg Res. Rep. No. 170, 1960 (revised and reprinted Sept. 1966), 46 pp.
                Price 35 [cents].
 
HUGHES, A.M.    The mites of stored food.  Tech. Bull. Minist. Agric. Fish. Fd, No. 9, 1961,
1961            vi + 287 pp. London:  HMSO.   Price 87 1/2p.
 
INTERNATIONAL:  EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANISATION.   Report of the international conference on the protection of stored products,
1968            Lisbon 27 - 30 Nov. 1967.  EPPO Publications, Ser. A, No. 46-E.  Paris:
                EPPO, 1968,171 pp.  Price 1.65 [pounds].   (EPPO, 1 rue le Notre, Paris).
 
INTERNATIONAL:  EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANIZATION.   Report of the working party on Stored Products of Tropical Origin (Hamburg,
1969            5 - 6 Nov. 1968).   EPPO Publications, Ser. A, No. 51-E.   Paris:  EPPO, 1969,
                38 pp + 7 tables.  Price 50p.   (EPPO, 1 rue le Notre, Paris).
 
INTERNATIONAL:  EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANISATION.   Report of the Working Party on Stored Products of Mediterranean Origin
1970            (Lisbon, 13 - 14 March, 1969).  EPPO Publications, Ser. A, No. 56.  Paris:
                EPPO, 1970, 85 + xxx pp.  Price unknown.   (EPPO, 1 rue le Notre, Paris).
 
JOUBERT, P. C. and DE BEER, P. R.
1968            The toxicity of contact insecticides to seed-infesting insects.   Series No. 6.
                Tests with bromophos on maize.  S. Afr. Dep. Agric., tech. Serv., tech.
                Commun. No. 84.  Pretoria:   Government Printer, 1968, 9 pp.
 
KAMEL, A.H. and SHAHBA, B.A.
1958            Protection of stored seeds in Egypt.  Bull. Minist. Agric. Egypt, Ext. Dep.,
                No. 295.  Cairo:   General Organization for Government Printing Offices,
                1958, 16 pp.
 
LAHUE, D.W.     Evaluation of several formulations of malathion as a protectant of grain
1969            sorghum against insects - in small bins.   U.S. Dep. Agric., agric. Res. Serv.,
                Mktg Res. Rep. No. 828, 1969, iv + 19 pp.  Price 20 [cents].
 
LAHUE, D.W.     Evaluation of malathion, diazinon, a silica aerogel and a diatomaceous
1970            earth as protectants on wheat against lesser grain borer attack ... in small
                bins.  U.S. Dep. Agric., agric. Res. Serv., Mktg Res. Rep. No. 860, 1970,
                iv + 12 pp.
 
LOCHNER, E.H.W. Safe storage of food grains in the Republic of South Africa.  S. Afr. Dep.
1963            Agric., tech. Serv., tech. Commun. No. 13.   Pretoria:  Government Printer,
                1963, ii + 45 pp.
 
LOCHNER, E.H.W. Fumigation of maize in railway trucks in transit to the ports.  (In Africaans
1964            with English Summary).  S. Afr. Dep. Agric., tech. Serv., tech. Commun.
                No. 25.  Pretoria:   Government Printer, 1964, ii + 62 pp.
 
McFARLANE, J.A., MARTIN, H.G., DIXON, W.B. and MOLLISON, D.W.
1961            Prevention and control of infestation of stored grain by insect pests and
                rodents.  Prepared jointly by the Storage and Infestation Division (Mktg
                Dept, Minist. Trade and Ind.) and Plant Protection Division (Minist. Agric.
                and Lands).  Kingston, Jamaica:   Govt Printer, 1961, iii + 57 pp.
 
MONRO, H.A.U.   Manual of fumigation for insect control.   F.A.O. agric. Studies, No. 79.
1971            Rome:  FAO, 1971, xii + 381 pp.  Second edn, revised.   Price 2.80 [pounds].
 
ORDISH, G.      (Gen. Ed).  Pest control in groundnuts.   PANS Manual No. 2.   London:
1967            Minist. Overseas Dev., trop. Pestic. Res. H.Q. & Inf. Unit, 1967, iv + 138 pp.
                Price 45p.  (56-62 Gray's Inn Rd, London, WC1X 8LU).
 
PREVETT, P.F.   An investigation into storage problems of rice in Sierra Leone.   Colonial
1959            Res. Studies, No.28.  London:   HMSO, 1959, 52 pp.
 
RANSOM, W.H.    Buildings for the storage of crops in warm climates.   Dep. sci. ind. Res.
1960            Trop.  Building Studies, No. 2.  London:   HMSO, 1960, 24 pp.  Price 22 1/2p.
 
SALMOND, K.F.   Investigations into grain storage problems in Nyasaland with special
1957            reference to maize (Zea mays L.).  Colonial Res. Publn No. 21.  London:
                HMSO, 1957, 49 pp.  Price 22 1/2p.
 
SMITH, C.V.     Meteorology and grain storage.  Tech. Note U.N. Wld met. Org., No. 101
1969            (WMO No. 243 TP 133).   Geneva:  Secretariat of World Meteorological
                Organisation, 1969, xvi + 47 pp. Price 1.00 [pounds].
 
STEELE, B.      (Gen. Ed.).  Pest control in rice.   PANS Manual No. 3.   London:  Minist.
1970            Overseas Dev. trop. Pestic. Res. H.Q. & Inf. Unit, 1970, ii + 270 pp.
                Price 62 1/2p.  (56-62 Gray's Inn Rd, London WC1X  8LU).
 
UNITED NATIONS:  FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION.
1968            Improved storage and its contribution to world food supplies.   Chapter 4
                in 'State of Food and agriculture, 1968', pp 115 - 143. Rome:   FAO,
                1968, 205 pp. Price $5.75 or 2.30 [pounds].
 
UNITED NATIONS:  FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION.
1969            Crop Storage.  Technical Report No. 1 of the Food Research and Development
                Unit, Accra, Ghana.  Prepared for the Government of Ghana by FAO
                acting as executing agency for the United Nations Development Programme,
                based on the work of J. Rawnsley.  PL:   SF/GHA 7.  Rome:  FAO, 1969,
                ix + 89 pp + 7 app.
 
UNITED STATES:  DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:  AGRICULTURAL MARKETING
SERVICE, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES BRANCH, STORED PRODUCTS INSECTS SECTION.
1958            Stored grain pests.  U.S. Dep. Agric. Fmrs Bull. No. 1260, 1958, rev.,
                46 pp. Price 25 [cents].
 
WOGAN, G.N.     (Ed.).  Mycotoxins in foodstuffs.  Proceedings of a symposium at Massachusetts
1965            Inst. Technol., March 1964.  Cambridge, Mass:  Mass. Inst. Technol.
                Press, 1965, xii + 291 pp. Price 3.75 [pounds].
 
WORLD FOOD PROGRAMME.
1970            Food storage manual.  (Prepared by the Tropical Stored Products Centre,
                Ministry of Overseas Development).  Rome:  FAO, 1970, 3 vols, 820 pp.
                Price $18.
 
Advisory Leaflets
 
BOOTH, C., HOLLIDAY, P. and SUBRAMANIAN, C.V.
1969            C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria.   Set 22, sheets 211 - 220.
                Kew:  Commonw. Mycol. Inst., 1969.  Price 25p. (Commonw.
                Mycol. Inst., Ferry Lane, Kew, Surrey).
 
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1967            Methods for sampling oilseeds.  Br. Stand. No. 4146, 1967, 16 pp.  Price 30p.
 
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1968            Methods of test for cereals and pulses.  Part 2.  Determination of moisture
                content of cereals and cereal products (basic reference method).   Br. Stand.
                No. 4317, Part 2, 1968, 12 pp.  Price 25p.
 
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1968            Methods of test for cereals and pulses.  Part 4.  Determination of impurities
                in pulses.  Br. Stand. No. 4317, Part 4, 1968, 7 pp. Price 20p.
 
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1969            Methods for sampling cereals (as grain).  Br. Stand. No. 4510, 1969, 19 pp.
                Price 50p.
 
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1969            Methods for sampling pulses.  Br. Stand. No. 4511, 1969, 16 pp.  Price 40p.
 
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1969            Recommended common names for pesticides.   Br. Stand. No. 1831, 1969,
                4th rev., 107 pp. Price 2.00 [pounds].
 
HARMOND, J.E., BRANDENBURG, N.R. and KLEIN, L.M.
1968            Mechanical seed cleaning and handling.  U.S. Dep. Agric., agric. Res. Serv.
                (in conj. w. Oregon agric. Exp. Stn), agric.  Handbk No. 354, 1968, 56 pp.
                Price 55 [cents].
 
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1966            Fumigation with the liquid fumigants carbon tetrachloride, ethylene
                dichloride and ethylene dibromide.  Precautionary measures.  London:
                HMSO, 1966, rev. edn, i + 8 pp. Price 7 1/2p.
 
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1968            Heating of grain in store.  Minist. Agric. Fish. Fd, Adv. Leafl. No. 404,
                1968, rev., 6 pp.  Single copies free.
 
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1968            Insect pests in food stores.  Minist. Agric. Fish. Fd, Adv. Leafl. No. 483,
                1968, rev., 8 pp.   Single copies free.
 
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1969            Fumigation with ethylene oxide.  Precautionary measures, 1969.  London:
                HMSO, 1969, 8 pp.  Price 9p.
 
UNITED STATES:  DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:  AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
SERVICE, AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH DIVISION.
1969            Guide lines for mold control in high-moisture corn.  U.S. Dep. Agric., Fmrs
                Bull. No. 2238, 1969, rev., 16 pp. Price 10 [cents].
 
UNITED STATES:  DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:  AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
SERVICE, MARKET QUALITY RESEARCH DIVISION.
1969            Controlling insects in farm-stored grain.   U.S. Dep. Agric., Leafl. No. 553,
                1969, 8 pp.  Price 10 [cents].
 
Scientific Papers
 
A full list of papers published by staff of the Tropical Stored Products Centre is available on
request from the TSPC, (TPI), London Road, Slough SL3 7HL, Bucks).
 
AMARO, J. P. and CANCELA DA FONSECA, J. P.
1957            Panorama actual dos problemas fitossanitarios dos produtos armazenados
                em Africa.  (Comprehensive survey of phytosanitary problems of stored
                products in Africa).  Garcia de Orta, 5 (4), 675 - 699.
 
ASHMAN, F.      The chemical control of stored food insect pests in Kenya.   J. agric. vet.
1963            Chem., 4 (2), 44-48.
 
ASHMAN, F.      An assessment of the value of dilute dust insecticides for the protection of
1966            stored maize in Kenya. J. appl. Ecol., 3(1), 169 - 179.
 
ASHMAN, F.      Inspection methods for detecting insects in stored produce.   Trop. stored
1966            Prod. Inf., (1 2), 481 - 494.
 
ASHMAN, F., ELIAS, D. G., ELLISON, J. F. and SPRATLEY, R.
1969            An instrument for detecting insects within food grains.   Milling, 151 (3),
                32, 34 & 36.
 
ATTIA, R. and KAMEL, A. H.
1965            The fauna of stored products in U.A.R. Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 49, 221 - 232.
 
BAILEY, S.W.    Airtight storage of grain, its effects on insect pests.   II.  Calandra oryzae
1956            (small strain).  Aust. J. agric. Res., 7 (1), 7 - 19.
 
BAILEY, S.W.    Airtight storage of grain, its effects on insect pests.   III.  Calandra oryzae
1957            (large strain).  Aust. J. agric. Res., 8 (6), 595 - 603.
 
BAILEY, S.W.    The effects of percussion on insect pests of grain.   J. econ. Ent., 55 (3),
1962            301 - 305.
 
BAILEY, S. W.   Airtight storage of grain - its effect on insect pests.   IV.  Rhyzopertha
1965            dominica (F.) and some other Coleoptera that infest stored grain.
                J. stored Prod. Res., 1 (1), 25 - 33.
 
BARNES, J. M.   Pesticide residues as hazards.  PANS, 15 (1), 2 - 8.
1969
 
BREESE, M.H.    The infestibility of stored paddy by Sitophilus sasakii (Tak.) and
1960            Rhyzopertha dominica (F.).  Bull. ent. Res., 51 (3), 599 - 630.
 
BREESE, M.H.    Studies on the oviposition of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) in rice and paddy.
1963            Bull. ent. Res., 53 (4), 621 - 637.
BURRELL, N.J.    The chilled storage of grain.  Ceres, (5), 15-20.
1969
 
CABRAL, A.L. and MOREIRA, I.S.
1960             Da occorrencia de algunas pragas de produtos ultramarinos en poroes de
                 navios mercantes (Carreira da Guine).  (Occurrence and distribution of
                 some pests of stored products in ships' holds of cargo ships of the Guinea
                 Line).  Garcia de Orta, 8 (1), 47-57.
 
CASWELL, G.H.    The infestation of cowpeas in the Western Region of Nigeria.   Trop. Sci., 3
1961             (4), 154 - 158.
 
CASWELL, G.H. and CLIFFORD, H.T.
1960             Effect of moisture content on germination and growth of fumigated maize
                 grain.  Emp. J. exp. Agric., 28, 139 - 149.
 
CHRISTENSEN, C.M. and KAUFMANN, H.H.
1965             Deterioration of stored grains by fungi.  A. Rev. Phytopath., 3, 69 - 84.
 
CHRISTENSEN, C.M. and LOPEZ, L.C.
1963             Pathology of stored seeds.  Proc. int. Seed Test. Ass., 28, 701 - 711.
 
CLARKE, J.H.     Fungi in stored products.  Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (15), 3 - 14.
1968
 
COAKER, T.H.     'Insack' treatment of maize with insecticide for protection against storage
1959             pests in Uganda.  E. Afr. agric. J., 24 (4), 244 - 250.
 
COLLINGS, H.     Hermetic sealing of a stack of maize with bituminous roofing felt.
1960             Trop. Agric., Trin., 37 (1), 53 - 60.
 
COURSEY, D.G.    Yam storage.  I:   a review of yam storage practices and of information on
1967             storage losses.  J. stored Prod. Res., 2 (3), 229 - 244.
 
COVENEY, R.D.    Sacks for the storage of food grains.  Trop. stored Prod Inf., (17), 3-22.
1969
 
CRANHAM, J.E.    Insect infestation of stored raw cocoa in Ghana.   Bull. ent. Res., 51 (1),
1960             203 - 222.
 
DAVEY, P.M. and ELCOATE, S.
1967             Moisture content/relative humidity equilibria of tropical stored produce.
                 Part 3.  Legumes, spices and beverages.   Trop. stored Prod Inf., (13), 15 - 34.
 
DAVIES, J.C.     Aluminium phosphide for bulk grain fumigation in Uganda.   E. Afr. agric.
1958             J., 24 (2), 103 - 105.
 
DAVIES, J.C.     A note on the control of bean pests in Uganda.  E. Afr. agric. J., 24 (3),
1959             174 - 178.
 
DAVIES, J.C.     Coleoptera associated with stored products in Uganda.   E. Afr. agric. J., 25
1960             (3), 199 - 201.
 
DAVIES, J.C.     Storage of maize in a prefabricated aluminium silo in tropical conditions.
1960             E. Afr. agric. J., 25 (4), 225 - 228.
 
DAVIES, J.C.     Experiments on the crib storage of maize in Uganda.   E. Afr. agric. J., 26
1960             (1), 71 - 75.
 
DEXTER, S.T., CHAVES, A.M. and EDJE, O.T.
1969             Drying or anaerobically preserving small lots of grain for seed or food.
                 Agron. J., 61 (6), 913 - 919.
 
ELDER, W.B.      CSIRO develops aeration system for farm-stored grain.   Pwr Fmg Bett. Fmg
1969             Dig., 78 (10), 10 - 13.
 
FULLERTON, R.L.  Low-cost farm buildings for storage and equipment housing in Ghana.
1968             Ghana J. agric. Sci., 1 (2), 165 - 170.
 
GILES, P.H.      The storage of cereals by farmers in Northern Nigeria.   Trop. Agric., Trin.,
1964             41 (3), 197 - 212.
 
GILES, P.H.      Control of insects infesting stored sorghum in Northern Nigeria.   J. stored
1965             Prod. Res., 1 (2), 145 - 158.
 
GILES, P.H.      Maize storage:  the problem of today.  Trop. stored Prod. inf., (14), 9 - 19.
1967
 
GILES, P.H.      Observations in Kenya on the flight activity of stored products insects,
1969             particularly Sitophilus zeamais Motsch.  J. stored Prod. Res., 4 (2), 317 - 329.
 
GOLUMBIC, C. and DAVIS, D. F.
1966             Radiation disinfestation of grain and seeds.   Proc. Symp. Food Irradiation,
                 Karlsruhe, 1966, pp 473 - 488.  Vienna:  Int. Atomic Energy Agency.
 
GONEN, M. and CALDERON, M.
1968             Changes in the microfloral composition of moist sorghum stored under
                 hermetic conditions.  Trop. Sci., 10 (2), 107 - 114.
 
GRAHAM, W.M.     Warehouse ecology studies of bagged maize in Kenya.   I. The distribution
1970             of adult Ephestia (Cadra) cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera, Phycitidae).
                 II.  Ecological observations of an infestation by E. cautella.  III. Distribution
                 of the immature stages of E. cautella.  IV. Reinfestation following
                 fumigation with methyl bromide gas.  J. stored Prod. Res., 6 (2):  I, 147 - 155;
                 II, 157 - 167; III, 169 - 175; IV, 177 - 180.
 
GREEN, A.A.      The protection of dried sea-fish in South Arabia from infestation by
1967             Dermestes frischii Kug.  (Coleoptera, Dermestidae).  J. stored Prod. Res.,
                 2 (4), 331 - 350.
 
HALL, D.W.       Prevention of waste of agricultural produce during handling, storage and
1968             transportation.  Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (15), 15 - 23.
 
HALL, D.W.       Food storage in the developing countries.  J. R. Soc. Arts, 117 (5156),
1969             562 - 579.
 
HALLIDAY, D.     Build-up of free fatty acid in Northern Nigerian groundnuts.   Trop. Sci., 9
1967             (4), 211 - 237.
 
HAYWARD, L.A.W.  Infestation control in stored groundnuts in Northern Nigeria.   Wld Crops,
1963             15 (2), 63 - 67.
 
HOWE, R. W.      Entomological problems of food storage in Northern Nigeria.   Bull. ent.
1952             Res., 43 (1), 111 - 144.
 
HOWE, R.W.       A summary of estimates of optimal and minimal conditions for population
1965             increase of some stored products insects.   J. stored Prod. Res., 1 (2), 177 - 184.
 
HOWE, R.W.       Losses caused by insects and mites in stored foods and feeding stuffs.  Nutr.
1965             Abstr. Rev., 35, 285 - 293.
 
HOWE, R.W. and CURRIE, J.E.
1964             Some laboratory observations on the rates of development, mortality and
                 oviposition of several Bruchidae breeding in stored pulses.   Bull. ent. Res.,
                 55 (3), 437 - 477.
 
HYDE, M.B.       Hazards of storing high-moisture grain in airtight silos in tropical countries.
1969             Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (18), 9 - 12.
 
JOFFE, A.        Moisture migration in horizontally stored bulk maize:   influence of grain-infesting
1958             insects under South African conditions.  S. Afr. J. agric. Sci., 1
                 (2), 175 - 193.
 
JOFFE, A.        The effect of physical disturbance or 'turning' of stored maize on the
1963             development of insect infestation.  I. Grain elevator studies.  S. Afr. J.
                 agric. Sci., 6, 55 - 64.
 
KAPUR, N.S. and SRIVASTAVA, H.C.
1959             Storage and preservation of fatty foods.   Food Sci., Mysore, 8, 257 - 262.
 
KHALIFA, A.      On open-air and underground storage in the Sudan.  Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte,
1960             53 (44), 129 - 142.
 
KHALIFA, A.      The relative susceptibility of some varieties of sorghum to Trogoderma
1962             attack.  Emp. J. exp. Agric., 30 (118), 133 - 136.
 
KOCKUM, S.       Protection of cob maize stored in cribs.   E. Afr. agric. J., 19 (2), 69-73.
1953
 
KOCKUM, S.       Control of insects attacking maize on the cob in crib stores.   E. Afr. agric.
1958             J., 23 (4), 275 - 279.
 
LE PELLEY, R.H. and KOCKUM, S.
1954             Experiments in the use of insecticides for the protection of grains in storage.
                 Bull. ent. Res., 45 (2), 295 - 311.
 
McFARLANE, J.A.  An annotated record of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera
1963             associated with stored produce in Jamaica.   Trop. Agric., Trin., 40 (3), 211-216
 
McFARLANE, J.A.  The productivity and rate of development of Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera,
1968             Curculionidae) in various parts of Kenya.   J. stored Prod. Res., 4 (1), 31 - 51.
 
McFARLANE, J.A.  Stored products insect control in Kenya.   Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (18), 13 - 23
1969
 
McFARLANE, J.A.  Treatment of large grain stores in Kenya with dichlorvos slow-release strips
1970             for the control of Cadra cautella.  J. econ. Ent., 63 (1), 288 - 292.
 
MACKAY, P.J.     Theory of moisture in stored produce.  Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (13), 9 - 14.
1967
 
MAJUMDER, S.K. and BANO, A.
1964             Toxicity of calcium phosphate to some pests of stored grain.   Nature,
                 Lond., 202 (4939), 1359 - 1360.
 
MAJUMDER, S.K., KRISHNAMURTHY, K. and GODAVARI BAI, S.
1961             Pre-harvest prophylaxis for infestation control in stored food grains.
                 Nature, Lond., 192 (4800), 375 - 376.
 
MAJUMDER, S.K., NARASIMHAN, K.S. and SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1959             Insecticidal effects of activated charcoal and clays.  Nature, Lond, 184
                       (4693), 1165 - 1166.
 
MAJUMDER, S.K. and NATARAJAN, C.P.
1963             Some aspects of the problem of bulk storage of foodgrains in India.
                 Wld Rev. Pest Control, 2 (2), 25 - 35.
 
MISHRA, A.B., SHARMA, S.M. and SINGH, S.P.
1969             Fungi associated with Sorghum vulgare under different storage conditions
                 in India.  PANS, 15 (3), 365 - 367.
 
PAGE, A.B.P. and LUBATTI, O.F.
1963             Fumigation of insects.  A. Rev. Ent., 8, 239 - 264.
 
PARKIN, E.A.     The protection of stored seeds from insects and rodents.   Proc. Int. Seed
1963             Test. Ass., 28 (4), 893 - 909.
 
PARKIN, E.A.     The onset of insecticide resistance among field populations of stored product
1965             insects.  J. stored Prod. Res., 1 (1) 3 - 8.
 
PINGALE, S. V., KADKOL, S.B., RAO, M.N., SWAMINATHAN, M. and SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1957             Effect of insect infestation on stored grain:   II.  Studies on husked, handpounded,
                 milled raw rice and parboiled milled rice.   J. Sci. Fd Agric., 8 (9)
                 512 - 516.
 
PINGALE, S.V., RAO, M.N. and SWAMINATHAN, M.
1954             Effect of insect infestation on stored wheat.   I. Studies on soft wheat.
                 J. Sci. Fd Agric., 5 (1), 51 - 54.
 
PIXTON, S.W.     Moisture content - its significance and measurement in stored products.
1967             J. stored Prod. Res., 3 (1), 35 - 47.
 
PIXTON, S.W.  A possible rapid method of determining the moisture content of high-moisture
1970             grain.  J. Sci. Fd Agric., 21 (9), 465 - 467.
 
POINTEL, J-G.    Contribution a la conservation du niebe, du vouandzou, du mais, des
1968             arachides et du sorgho.   (Contribution to the preservation of cowpeas,
                 Voandzeia subterranea (Bambarra groundnut), maize, groundnuts and
                 sorghum).  Agron. trop., Nogent, 23 (9), 982 - 986.
 
POINTEL, J-G.    Essai et enquete sur greniers a mais togolais.   (A trial and survey on
1969             Togolese maize granaries).  Agron. trop., Nogent, 24 (8), 709 - 718.
 
PRADHAN, S., MOOKHERJEE, P.B. and SHARMA, G.C.
1965             Pusa bin for grain storage.  Indian Fmg, 15 (1), 14 - 16.
 
PREVETT, P.F.    A study of rice storage under tropical conditions.   J. agric. Engng Res., 4
1959             (3), 243 - 254.
 
PREVETT, P.F.    The distribution of insects in stacks of bagged groundnuts in Northern
1964             Nigeria. Bull. ent. Res., 54 (4), 689 - 713.
 
QURESHI, Z.A., WILBUR; D.A. and MILLS, R.B.
1970             Irradiation of early instars of the Angoumois Grain Moth.   J. econ. Ent.,
                 63 (4), 1241 - 1247.
 
RHYNEHART, T.    The control of insects infesting groundnuts after harvest in the Gambia:
1960             IV.  The practical application of control measures.  Trop. Sci., 2 (3), 134 - 139.
 
ROBERTSON, J.V.  Trials with small capacity grain silos in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.   E. Afr.
1968             agric. for J., 34 (2), 263 - 276.
 
ROWLANDS, D.G.   The metabolism of contact insecticides in stored grains.   Residue Rev., 17,
1967             105 - 177.
 
SARID, J.N. and KRISHNAMURTHY, K.
1965             Storage structures for large scale handling and preservation of food grain.
                 Bull. Grain Tech., 3 (2), 62 - 69.
 
SARID, J.N. and KRISHNAMURTHY, K.
1968             Protection of marketable grain.  Bull. Grain Tech., 6 (1), 16 - 20.
 
SARID, J.N., RAI, L., KRISHNAMURTHY, K. and PINGALE, S. V.
1965             Studies on the large scale storage of food grains in India.   Part II. Studies
                 on the relative suitability of cement concrete and aluminium bins for
                 storing wheat.   Bull. Grain Tech., 3 (4), 135 - 141.
 
SARID, J.N., RAI, L. and PINGALE, S.V.
1967             Studies on the large scale storage of food grains in India.   Part III.  Studies
                 on the insect and temperature fluctuations in bag storage of wheat.   Bull.
                 Grain Tech., 5 (1), 3 - 11.
 
SODERSTROM, E.L. Effectiveness of green electroluminescent lamps for attracting stored-product
1970             insects.  J. econ. Ent., 63 (3), 726 - 731.
 
SOUTHGATE, B.J.  Plastics films for the bulk storage of food.   Plast. Inst. Trans. & J., 33
1965             (103), 11 - 15.
 
STRONG, R.G. and LINDGREN, D.L.
1960              Germination of cereal, sorghum and small legume seeds after fumigation
                  with hydrogen phosphide.  J. econ. Ent., 53 (1), 1 - 4.
 
STRONG, R.G. and LINDGREN, D.L.
1961             Effect of methyl bromide and hydrocyanic acid fumigation on the germination
                 of corn seed.  J. econ. Ent., 54 (8), 764 - 770.
 
SWAINE, G.       Trials on the underground storage of maize of high moisture content in
1957             Tanganyika.  Bull. ent. Res., 48 (2), 397 - 406.
 
VENKAT RAO, S., NUGGEHALLI, R.N., PINGALE, S.V., SWAMINATHAN, M. and
SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1958             Effect of insect infestation on stored field bean (Dolichos lablab) and
                 black gram (Phaseolus mungo).  Fd Sci., Mysore, 9, 79 - 82.
 
VENKAT RAO, S., NUGGEHALLI, R.N., SWAMINATHAN, M., PINGALE, S.V. and
SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1958             Effect of insect infestation on stored grain:   III. Studies on Kaffir corn
                 (Sorghum vulgare).  J. Sci. Fd Agric., 9 (12), 837 - 839.
 
WATTERS, F.L.    Effects of grain moisture content on residual toxicity and repellency of
1959             malathion.  J. econ. Ent., 52 (1), 131 - 134.
 
WATTERS, F.L.   Physical methods of insect control.  Proc. Ent. Soc. Manitoba, 21,
1965             18 - 27.
 
WATTERS, F.L.   An appraisal of gamma irradiation for insect control in cereal foods.
1968             Manitoba Ent., 2, 37-45.
 
WILKIN, D.R. and GREEN, A.A.
1970             Polythene sacks for the control of insects in grain.   J. stored Prod. Res.,
                 6 (1), 97 - 101.
 
WRIGHT, F.N.     New storage, transportation and handling techniques for tropical agricultural
1965             produce.  Congr. Prot. Cult. trop., Marseilles, 1965, pp 93 - 98.  Marseilles:
                 Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie.
 
WRIGHT, F.N. and SOUTHGATE, B.J.
1962             The potential uses of plastics for storage with particular reference to rural
                 Africa.  Trop. Sci., 4 (2), 74 - 81.
                     Conversion Tables
 
              Simple methods are given here for
            converting English and metric units
            of measurement.  Following these is
            a series of useful conversion tables
            for units of area, volume, weight,
            pressure and power.
 
LENGTH CONVERSION
 
  The chart in Figure 3 is useful
for quick conversion from meters and
centimeters to feet and inches, or
vice versa.  For more accurate results
and for distances greater than 3 meters,         Equations:
use either the tables in Figure 2 or
the equations.                                     1 inch  = 2.54cm
                                                  1 foot   = 30.48cm
  The chart in Figure 3 has metric divisions              = 0.3048m
of one centimeter to three meters,                 1 yard  = 91.44cm
and English units in inches and feet                       = 0.9144m
to ten feet.  It is accurate to about             1 mile  = 1.607km
plus or minus one centimeter.                              = 5280 feet
                                                  1cm      = 0.3937 inches
Example:                                   1m       = 39.37 inches
                                                          = 3.28 feet
  An example will explain how to use              1km      = 0.62137 miles
the tables.  Suppose you wish to find                     = 1000 meters
how many inches are equal to 66cm.   On
the "Centimeters into Inches" table look
down the leftmost column to 60cm and then
right to the column headed 6cm.   This
gives the result, 25.984 inches.
 
                                                             FIGURE 2
                           Inches into centimeters
                           (1 in. = 2.539977 cm.)
 
inches     0        1       2       3        4       5       6        7       8        9
 
   0        cm.     2.54    5.08     7.62   10.16   12.70    15.24   17.78   20.32    22.86
  10       25.40   27.94   30.48    33.02   35.56   38.10    40.64   43.18   45.72    48.26
  20       50.80   53.34   55.88    58.42   60.96   63.50    66.04   68.58    71.12   73.66
  30       76.20   78.74   81.28    83.82   86.36   88.90    91.44   93.98   96.52    99.06
  40      101.60  104.14  106.68   109.22  111.76  114.30   116.84  119.38  121.92   124.46
  50      127.00  129.54  132.08   134.62  137.16  139.70   142.24  144.78  147.32   149.86
  60      152.40  154.94  157.48   160.02  162.56  165.10   167.64  170.18  172.72   175.26
  70      177.80  180.34  182.88   185.42  187.96  190.50   193.04  195.58  198.12   200.66
  80      203.20  205.74  208.28   210.82  213.36  215.90   218.44  220.98  223.52   226.06
  90      228.60  231.14  233.68   236.22  238.76  241.30   243.84  246.38  248.92   251.46
 
                           Centimeters into inches
                            (1 cm. = 0.3937 in.)
 
  cm.       0       1       2       3        4       5       6        7       8       9
 
   0      inches   0.394   0.787    1.181   1.575   1.969    2.362   2.756   3.150    3.543
  10       3.937   4.331   4.724    5.118   5.512   5.906    6.299   6.693   7.087    7.480
  20       7.874   8.268   8.661    9.055   9.449   9.843   10.236  10.630  11.024   11.417
  30      11.811  12.205  12.598   12.992  13.386  13.780   14.567  14.567  14.961   15.354
  40      15.748  16.142  16.535   16.929  17.323  17.717   18.110  18.504  18.898  19.291
  50      19.685  20.079  20.472   20.866  21.260  21.654   22.047  22.441  22.835   23.228
  60      23.622  24.016  24.409   24.803  25.197  25.591   25.984  26.378  26.772   27.165
  70      27.559  27.953  28.346   28.740  29.134  29.528   29.921  30.315  30.709   31.102
  80      31.496  31.890  32.283   32.677  33.071  33.465   33.858  34.252  34.646   35.039
  90      35.433  35.827  36.220   36.614  37.008  37.402   37.795  38.189  38.583   38.976
 
<FIGURE 101>
 
WEIGHT CONVERSION
 
  The chart in Figure 5 converts pounds
and ounces to kilograms and grams or
vice versa.  For weights greater than
ten pounds, or more accurate results,
use the tables (Figure 4) or conversion
equations.  See "Length Conversion,"
Figure 2, for an example of the use of
the tables.
 
  On the chart, notice that there are
sixteen divisions for each pound to
represent ounces.  There are 100 divisions
only in the first kilogram, and
each division represents ten grams.
The chart is accurate to about plus
or minus twenty grams.
 
Equations:
 
  1 ounce = 28.35 grams
  1 pound =   0.4536 kilograms
  1 gram   =  0.03527 ounce
  1 gram   =  2.205 pounds
 
          FIGURE 4
                                   Kilograms into pounds
                                   (1 kg. = 2.20463 lb.)
 
   kg.      0       1       2        3       4       5        6       7       8        9
 
    0       lb.     2.20    4.41     6.61    8.82   11.02    13.23   15.43   17.64    19.84
   10      22.05   24.25   26.46    28.66   30.86   33.07    35.27   37.48   39.68   41.89
   20      44.09   46.30   48.50    50.71   52.91   55.12    57.32   59.53   61.73    63.93
   30      66.14   68.34   70.55    72.75   74.96   77.16    79.37   81.57   83.78    85.98
   40      88.19   90.39   92.59    94.80   97.00   99.21   101.41  103.62  105.82   108.03
   50     110.23  112.44  114.64   116.85  119.05  121.25   123.46  125.66  127.87   130.07
   60     132.28  134.48  136.69   138.69  141.10  143.30   145.51  147.71  149.91   152.12
   70     154.32  156.53  158.73   160.94  163.14  165.35   167.55  169.76  171.96   174.17
   80     176.37  178.58  180.78   182.98  185.19  187.39   189.60  191.80  194.01   196.21
   90     198.42  200.62  202.83   205.03  207.24  209.44   211.64  213.85  216.05   218.26
 
                                   Pounds into kilograms
                                   (1 lb. = 0.45359 kg.)
 
   lb.      0       1       2        3       4       5        6       7       8        9
 
    0       kg.    0.454   0.907    1.361   1.814   2.268    2.722   3.175   3.629    4.082
   10      4.536   4.990   5.443    5.897   6.350   6.804    7.257   3.175   8.165    8.618
   20      9.072   9.525   9.979   10.433  10.886  11.340   11.793  12.247  12.701   13.154
   30     13.608  14.061  14.515   14.969  15.422  15.876   16.329  16.329  17.237  17.690
   40     18.144  18.597  19.051   19.504  19.958  20.412   20.865  21.319  21.772   22.226
   50     22.680  23.133  23.587   24.040  24.494  24.948   25.401  25.855  26.308   26.762
   60     27.216  27.669  28.123   28.576  29.030  29.484   29.937  30.391  30.844   31.298
   70     31.751  32.205  32.659   33.112  33.566  34.019   34.473  34.927  35.380   35.834
   80     36.287  36.741  37.195   37.648  38.102  38.555   39.009  39.463  39.916   40.370
   90     40.823  41.277  41.730   42.184  42.638  43.091   43.545  43.998  44.452   44.906
 
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
 
  The chart in Figure 1 is useful for
quick conversion from degrees Celsius
(Centigrade) to degrees Fahrenheit and
vice versa.  Although the chart is fast
and handy, you must use the equations
below if your answer must be accurate
to within one degree.
 
Equations:
 
Degrees Celsius = 5/9 x (Degrees
  Fahrenheit -32)
 
Degrees Fahrenheit = 1.8 x (Degrees
  Celsius) +32
 
Example:
 
  This example may help to clarify the
use of the equations; 72F equals how
many degrees Celsius?
 
  72F = 5/9 (Degrees F -32)
 
  72F = 5/9 (72 -32)
 
  72F = 5/9 (40)
 
  72F = 22.2C
 
  Notice that the chart reads 22C, an
error of about 0.2C.
 
                            Conversion Tables
 
Units of Area
 
1 Square Mile       = 640 Acres                  = 2.5899 Square Kilometers
 
1 Square Kilometer  = 1,000,000 Square Meters   = 0.3861 Square Mile
 
1 Acre              = 43,560 Square Feet
 
1 Square Foot       = 144 Square Inches         = 0.0929 Square Meter
 
1 Square Inch       = 6.452 Square Centimeters
 
1 Square Meter      = 10.764 Square Feet
 
1 Square Centimeter = 0.155 Square Inch
 
Units of Volume
 
1.0 Cubic Foot      = 1728 Cubic Inches         = 7.48 U.S. Gallons
 
1.0 British Imperial Gallon = 1.2 U.S. Gallons
 
1.0 Cubic Meter     = 35.314 Cubic Feet         = 264.2 U.S. Gallons
 
1.0 Liter           = 1000 Cubic Centimeters    = 0.2642 U.S. Gallons
 
Units of Weight
 
1.0 Metric Ton      = 1000 Kilograms            = 2204.6 Pounds
 
1.0 Kilogram        = 1000 Grams                 = 2.2046 Pounds
 
1.0 Short Ton       = 2000 Pounds
 
                            Conversion Tables
 
Units of Pressure
 
1.0 Pound per square inch            = 144 Pounds per square foot
 
1.0 Pound per square inch            = 27.7 Inches of Water(*)
 
1.0 Pound per square inch            = 2.31 Feet of Water(*)
 
1.0 Pound per square inch            = 2.042 Inches of Mercury(*)
 
1.0 Atmosphere                       = 14.7 Pounds per square inch (PSI)
 
1.0 Atmosphere                       = 33.95 Feet of Water
 
1.0 Foot of Water = 0.433 PSI        = 62.355 Pounds per square foot
 
1.0 Kilogram per square centimeter   = 14.223 Pounds per square inch
 
1.0 Pound per square inch            = 0.0703 Kilogram per square centimeter
 
(*) at 62 degrees Fahrenheit (16.6 degrees Celsius)
 
Units of Power
 
1.0 Horsepower (English)             = 746 Watts = 0.746 Kilowatt (KW)
 
1.0 Horsepower (English)             = 550 Foot Pounds per second
 
1.0 Horsepower (English)             = 33,000 Foot Pounds per minute
 
1.0 Kilowatt (KW) = 1000 Watts       = 1.34 Horsepower (HP) English
 
1.0 Horsepower (English)             = 1.0139 Metric Horsepower (cheval-vapeur
 
1.0 Metric Horsepower                = 75 Meters X Kilogram/Second
 
1.0 Metric Horsepower                = 0.736 Kilowatt = 736 Watts
 
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