Lockheed & Verspoor (1991) focus on improving primary education, and categorise a range of investment options as 'promising avenues' or 'blind alleys' as follows (a blind alley may be ineffective, or too expensive):
|
|
promising avenues |
blind alleys |
|
curriculum |
improve implemented curriculum |
adjust intended curriculum |
|
learning materials |
good textbooks/teacher guides |
computers in classroom |
|
time |
at least 25 hours per week for core subjects of reading and maths |
class size reductions below 40-50 students |
|
teaching |
inservice training, interactive radio instruction, programmed material |
lengthy preservice pedagogical straining |
|
teachability |
preschools targeted at disadvantaged, snacks/breakfast, micro-nutrient supplementation, parasite treatment, vision and auditory screening. |
school lunches |
Several of these points are reinforced in USAID (1990), quoted in Singh (1991, p50) in particular
* programmed teaching/learning systems provide an effective, affordable and sustainable means to improve the quality of primary education, especially in settings where teachers are poorly trained and in short supply.* interactive radio instruction (IRI) has improved levels of student achievement significantly in traditional primary schools during the past 15 years at very low cost. IRI has also increased access to primary education through non-formal radio schools.
* typical preservice teacher training contributes little to educational quality; inservice training may be more effective and is less costly.
Cohn & Rossmiller (1987) consider methodological aspects of school-effectiveness research, and conclude that
Although all the school-effectiveness research is based on imperfect methodologies and data, the vast experience gained from research in both developed and less developed countries (LDCs) provides a few guidelines for educational policy in the developing countries. (p 378)
They argue that although there are differences between developed countries and LDCs, there are also great similarities in the determinants of academic performance. They draw the following implications for educational policy in LDCs:
Money is necessary but not a sufficient requisite to more effective schools.... The research provides no definitive answer to the question of at what level of spending do marginal returns turn down.... It is evident that adequate facilities, equipment, books and other instructional materials are necessary if a school is to be effective, but it is also evident that facilities and materials alone will not insure effectiveness if those who teach in them are not competent or if their decision making is unduly constrained. Conversely, highly competent teachers will find it difficult to teach effectively in inadequate facilities or if they are lacking the necessary instructional materials. The research provides no basis for concluding that LDCs should reduce their level of expenditure for education or be unconcerned about educational facilities. The findings do suggest that.... attention must increasingly be directed to how resources are used in the educational process. (pp 393-394)
Cohn & Rossmiller also discuss organisational factors:
The research on effective schools also draws attention to the importance of the decision-making process within the school.... It is important that national/state policies concerning education establish appropriate parameters for school and classroom decisions but also that they provide sufficient leeway for those decisions that can best be made at the school and the classroom level.... The research on effective schools highlights the limitations of a top-down strategy to change schools and classrooms...The research on effective schools emphasizes the importance of the decisions made by school principals and teachers (about how to use the available resources).... It is necessary to attract competent individuals to careers in teaching, provide them with appropriate training to develop their knowledge base and pedagogical skill, and create conditions and incentives to retain able teachers and administrators in the schools. Both monetary factors (e.g. salaries and opportunities for advancement) and nonmonetary factors (e.g. status, esteem and respect) are important. (pp 394-396)
Further policy implications of the research, according to Cohn & Rossmiller (1987) are:
A program of staff development is characteristic of effective schools.... The process used in planning and implementing such programs also is important.... Evidence from both developed countries and LDCs suggests that how, and how much, time is used for both in-school and out-of-school learning may be extremely important.... The trade-off between class size and other inputs must proceed very cautiously.... Another area of potential benefits is examination reform.... Preschool programs might provide benefits from both efficiency and equity standpoints. (pp 396-397)
They emphasize that policies to improve education in LDCs must be carefully designed and monitored to tailor the reform to the economic and cultural background of the individual countries.
In the majority of LDCs, however, where educational expenditures are woefully inadequate, extra funds for textbooks, distance education, teacher training, and other instructional and non-instructional resources could have a substantial effect on educational quality (p 399)
But Cohn & Rossmiller admit that their survey "still does not provide a precise list of priorities for the use of new funds".
