2.1 Multigrade schools
2.2 Multiple-shift schooling
2.3 Preprimary education
2.4 School physical facilities
2.5 Interactive radio instruction
2.6 Textbooks and materials
2.7 Health and school effectiveness
Multigrade schools combine students of different ages and abilities in one classroom, under the direction of one teacher (Thomas & Shaw, 1992).
Multigrade schools are a cost-effective way of providing a complete educational cycle in sparsely populated areas and for maintaining services in areas with declining populations. If properly implemented, multigrade schools offer considerable scope for reducing unit costs while maintaining or even improving quality. (Thomas & Shaw, 1992, p31)
Thomas & Shaw identify four critical elements for effective implementation, the first of which is the most important: (1) teachers need to adopt more effective teaching practices to make multigrade schools function properly; (2) to do so, they require adequate material and physical inputs of which programmed learning materials and textbooks are of overwhelming importance; (3) local and regional support networks need to be developed among teachers; and (4) there must be national level support for pilot programs, including both financial support and active involvement of a few key multigrade advocates.
In a multiple-shift system, schools cater for two or more entirely separate groups of pupils during a school day (Bray, 1989).
Multiple-shift systems can be highly cost-effective. They can permit substantial financial savings, and do not necessarily cause a decline in quality. And even when introduction of multiple-shift schooling does cause some loss of quality, the benefits of reduced unit costs and of larger enrolments may outweigh the cost implied by the loss of quality. (ibid, p93)
However, Bray stresses that, if multiple-shift systems are to operate cost-effectively, education authorities must give due consideration to a range of factors (choice of model, management structures, hours of schooling, out-of -school learning, use of teachers, extra rooms, use of other community facilities). Bray also points out that "multiple-shift schooling is rarely popular with the general public" (p98), and there is a need to take account of the social and political context in policy-making.
There is considerable evidence from research in developing nations that well-conceived, well-implemented preprimary educational programs can significantly increase the cognitive outcomes children obtain during their primary school years.(Raudenbush et al, 1991, p255)
As an example, they give evidence from Thailand which shows the following effects of preprimary education on achievement in mathematics and in the Thai language:
|
maths |
urban |
0.15 SD units (see Appendix B, note a) |
|
rural |
0.08 SD units |
|
|
Thai |
urban |
0.16 SD units |
|
rural |
0.10 SD units |
The cost per head per year in 1985 was $US 249.64 for 2-year kindergartens, $US 164.80 for 1-year preprimary schools, and $US 91.56 for child care centres. These costs are not cheap in comparison with unit costs for primary education in many countries (eg. in sub-Saharan Africa). Preprimary education for all may not, therefore, be an attractive investment policy option.
Nevertheless, Lockheed & Verspoor (1991) regard preschools as a 'promising avenue' for improving learning achievement, and draw attention to the role of preprimary education in combating poverty, for example in Latin America. Targeting preprimary education on specific underprivileged groups can help towards greater equity by reducing differences between different groups of students on entry to primary school. Conversely, however, pre-schools can act to increase performance differences if they are available mainly to children of relatively wealthy parents.
Although buildings, furniture and equipment accounted for almost 30% of aid for primary education in the period 1981-86 (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991) there is relatively little research evidence on the effects of school physical facilities in developing countries. Surprisingly, Lockheed & Verspoor do not focus on this topic, although they advocate the use of local materials, and mention that 'building latrines is another strategy that might increase enrollment, particularly of girls' (p 155). However they argue that priorities differ among countries and 'while providing textbooks is of the utmost urgency for some countries, upgrading the physical plant is more important for others' (p217).
There is some empirical research evidence. Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda (1987) found that availability of classrooms, desks, seats and books all produce a significantly better performance in Standard 7 examinations in Botswana. They argue that this research supports the argument that school facilities are integral to academic achievement, unlike studies carried out in the West suggesting that school facilities have no impact on achievement.
Urwick & Junaidu (1991) are critical of aspects of the methodology of the Botswana study, and conducted a qualitative study of Nigerian primary schools. Their findings 'illustrate the existence of multiple links between the quality of school facilities and a number of educational process variables which are widely considered to be important determinants of the quality of schooling'. Firstly, they found that four aspects of teaching (the extent to which teaching methods were pupil-centred, the variety of activities organized during lessons, the variety of methods of communication used during lessons, and the frequency with which assignments and homework were set) were affected by the provision of textbooks, teaching aids, writing materials and furniture. A second group of classroom learning conditions was the time required for learning activities to take place, orderliness and ease of movement in the classroom, pupil attentiveness, and pupils' opportunities for developing reading and writing skills. These were affected by many aspects of the school facilities: ancillary services such as first aid, toilets, water supply, classroom maintenance, textbook and furniture availability, space. Thirdly, effects were noted for three school variables: breadth of the basic curriculum, the range of co-curricular activities, and teacher morale. Indifference of the teachers in the more deprived schools was a major factor here, and morale was influenced by the physical condition and appearance of the school.
School facilities also emerged as a factor in the case study research of Vulliamy (1987), conducted in Papua New Guinea secondary schools.
The argument in the First World literature that levels of resourcing and of physical facilities are unrelated to student achievement does not seem to be applicable in the Third World context..... The lack of the most basic facilities in many Third World schools..... not only depresses staff and student morale but also acts as an impediment to effective teaching and learning.(Vulliamy, 1987, pp 219-220)
There would seem to be a strong case for further research on the effects of school facilities.
In interactive radio, instructional materials and delivery strategy are highly coordinated, and students give frequent active responses. It is clear that, although interactive radio has not been implemented widely, it is effective, very cost-effective, and teachers are enthusiastic about it (Lockheed & Hanushek, 1988; Hallak, 1990; Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991). Lockheed & Verspoor give examples from various sources with effect sizes ranging from 0.53 S.D. units to 1.31 S.D. units (these statistics are calculated by taking the mean score of the radio class, subtracting the mean score of the control group, and dividing by the standard deviation of the control group).
According to Fuller & Heyneman (1989, p 12),
teaching materials and related material inputs that are linked directly to teaching are related consistently to higher pupil achievement, after controlling for the influence of family background.
Lockheed & Verspoor (1991) also report that the availability of textbooks and other instructional materials has a consistently positive effect on student achievement in developing countries. They recommend the provision of good textbooks and teacher guides as a "promising avenue" for policy-makers. Computers in the classroom, however, are regarded as a "blind alley". Although they can be effective in the right conditions, the costs are much too high.
Several pieces of research on the effectiveness of textbooks have been carried out. For example, Heyneman et al (1984) evaluated a textbook program in the Philippines, which they describe as a large-scale investment in school quality improvement. The program reduced the ratio of pupils per book per subject from an average of 10:1 to 2:1. Three subjects and two grades were involved. The overall effect of the first year investment in textbooks was to raise the national level of academic achievement as follows:
|
|
grade 1 |
grade 2 |
|
Pilipino |
0.32 |
0.18 |
|
maths |
0.30 |
0.32 |
|
science |
0.51 |
0.46 |
The improvements in achievement are measured in S.D. units, and this represents a sizeable impact. In the case of grade 2 Pilipino, Heyneman et al found evidence that the textbooks may have been too difficult. Further improvements were not observed by a further improvement of the pupil-textbook ratio to 1:1. Another interesting finding of this evaluation was that
the effect of a school quality intervention appears to be the most pronounced among the children who are most impoverished and whose home backgrounds are the most underprivileged. (p 150)
Lockheed et al (1986) analysed longitudinal data from a sample of eighth grade mathematics classrooms in Thailand, and concluded:
This paper confirms that textbooks contribute to student learning in developing countries and identifies two important mechanisms whereby this contribution may be made: by substituting for postsecondary teacher education, and by delivering a more comprehensive curriculum. We found little evidence that textbooks enabled teachers to make better use of classroom time, however, or that they encouraged the assignment or completion of homework. (p379)
They argued also that educational policies favouring postsecondary education for teachers of lower secondary school may not be appropriate under conditions in which essential teaching materials are lacking.
More generally, Hallak (1990, p220) states that
Textbooks are the instructional device par excellence, and central to teaching. In the least developed countries, they often constitute 85% of recurrent expenditure on materials. Classrooms deprived of textbooks promote little in the way of reading skills, and are obliged to content themselves with rote learning, recitation, copying from blackboards and taking lecture notes.
Hallak points out that constraints affecting all categories of costs - design, testing, production, distribution and use - must be considered at all levels. The cost-effectiveness of textbooks is considered by Lockheed & Hanushek (1988) - see section 5 of this report.
Lockheed & Verspoor (1991, p74) review research relating to the role of health in promoting student achievement.
Several studies have explored the relationship between children's nutritional status and school indicators such as age at enrollment, grade attainment, absenteeism, achievement test scores, general intelligence, and performance on selected cognitive tasks, including concentration in the classroom. Three aspects of nutritional status affect achievement adversely: protein-energy malnutrition, temporary hunger, and micronutrient deprivation.
They argue that all three aspects can be easily and efficiently treated in schools. Supplementary feeding is the most commonly applied intervention for the first two, and is best applied in the form of modest school snacks or breakfasts. Providing school lunches, rather than breakfasts or snacks, is of questionable value.
For micronutrient deficiencies, iron, iodine, and vitamin A supplements and deworming are the prevalent treatments. Lockheed & Verspoor take the view that such supplements should be given a high priority where deficiencies are present. On deworming, maximum benefit-cost ratios are achieved when deworming is combined with sanitation, a clean water supply, and health education.
Finally, Lockheed & Verspoor recommend visual and auditory screening, but state that cost-benefit ratios are favourable only if the appropriate classroom management techniques are applied once a problem is discovered.
